A student who achieves a certain knowledge through free investigation and spontaneous effort will later be able to retain it; he will have acquired a methodology that can serve him for the rest of life. - Piaget, To Understand Is To Invent
What is Cognitive Development?
Cognitive Development involves the emergence of the mental ability to think and understand. Cognitive abilities are associated with memory, reasoning, processing, perception, language learning, problem-solving, and thinking .
Examples of questions related to Cognitive Development:
- Why do children ask the same question again and again ?
- Why is it more common for infants and toddlers to put things in their mouth compared to preschoolers?
- Why do children become possessive over toys and have a hard time sharing?
- Why do infants cry sometimes when we are unable to look for a reason of crying ?
- How does the memory develop and what kinds of things do young children remember?
- Why do some children bite and others do not?
- How can we use technology in the classroom in a supportive way to children’s development?
- What goes on in a child’s mind before their verbal skills develop? Do they think in complete thoughts?
- How much of what adults say can young children comprehend at different stages of development?
- When do children begin to understand limitations?
Overview of the Cognitive Development webpage:
The purpose of this page is to offer a starting point for making connections to your observations of your child study (and children in general). Once you have encountered a particular theory/idea/contributor/resource that you connect with you are required to conduct further research beyond this website for additional information and a deeper understanding of the ideas/people presented here. Important to mention, the information mentioned here under Cognitive Development also has an impact on Social and Emotional Development as well as Physical Development. These ideas/theories/concepts/contributors are mentioned here in the Cognitive Development section of the website because the literature base most commonly refers to them in the realm of Cognitive Development. Below offers a brief outline of the sections located on this page - for the most part names and theories are alphabetized and sometimes grouped together based on their shared meanings:
Anything in blue with ** below you can click on and you will automatically be brought to that section of the page.
Anything in blue with ** below you can click on and you will automatically be brought to that section of the page.
**Foundational Contributors to Theories and Concepts of Cognitive Development:
**Bandura (Albert) - Reciprocal Causation, Social Learning Theory
**Bronfenbrenner (Urie) - Ecological Systems Theory
**Bruner (Jerome) - Stages of Representation, Instructional Scaffolding, Intuitive Thinking, Spiral Curriculum, Discovery Learning
**Dewey (John)
**Fröbel (Friedrich)
**Gardner (Howard) - Theory of Multiple Intelligences
**Piaget (Jean) - Stages of Development, Adaptation Theory
**Sameroff (Arnold) - Transactional Model of Development
**Skinner (B.F.) - Reinforcement, Negative Reinforcement, Positive Reinforcement
**Vygotsky (Lev) - Zone of Proximal Development, Scaffolding, Cultural Historical Learning Theory, Sociocultural Learning Theory, Lower/Higher Mental Functions, Mediation, Mediators, Mental Tools, Inner/Private/Public Speech, Other Regulation
**Foundational Learning Theories of Cognitive Development:
Behavior Learning Theory
Cognitive Learning Theory
Constructivist Learning Theory
Cultural historical Learning Theory
Discovery Learning Theory
Information Processing Learning Theory
Guided Participation
Social Learning Theory
Situated Cognition (Learning) Theory
Sociocultural Learning Theory
**Foundational Theories of Motivation Related to Early Childhood
Attribution Theory
Mindset Theory
Extrinsic Motivation
Intrinsic Motivation
Goal Orientation Theory
Self Determination Theory
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
**Foundational Theories and Ideas of Perspective Taking
Selman's Stages of Perspective (Role) Taking
Theory of Mind
**Theories, Concepts, and Ideas of Cognitive Development in Infants (cheat sheet)
Joint Attention
Object Permanence
Sensorimotor Stage of Development
Theory of Mind
**Play and Cognitive Development
Foundational Contributors to Theories and Concepts of Cognitive Development:
Bandura (Albert) (1925- ) American Psychologist
*Theories build upon ideas from Vygotsky, and Skinner
Learn more about Bandura and an overview of his theories/contributions to child development
Reciprocal Causation (Determinism): An individual's behavior influences and is influenced by both the social world and personal characteristics. (Resource: http://psychology.about.com/od/socialpsychology/f/reciprocal-determinism.htm)
Social Learning Theory: An approach that emphasizes the role of modeling, or observational learning, in the development of behavior. According to Bandura, children acquire many favorable and unfavorable responses simply by watching and listening to others around them. Modeling, otherwise known as imitation or observational learning, became a widely recognized basis for development. Children gradually become more selective in what they imitate. From watching others engage in self-praise and self-blame and through feedback about the worth of their own actions, children develop personal standards for behavior and a sense of self-efficacy - beliefs about their own abilities and characteristics - that guide responses in particular situations (Berk, 1998).
Necessary conditions for effective modeling:
Social Learning Theory: An approach that emphasizes the role of modeling, or observational learning, in the development of behavior. According to Bandura, children acquire many favorable and unfavorable responses simply by watching and listening to others around them. Modeling, otherwise known as imitation or observational learning, became a widely recognized basis for development. Children gradually become more selective in what they imitate. From watching others engage in self-praise and self-blame and through feedback about the worth of their own actions, children develop personal standards for behavior and a sense of self-efficacy - beliefs about their own abilities and characteristics - that guide responses in particular situations (Berk, 1998).
Necessary conditions for effective modeling:
- Attention - Various factors increase or decrease the amount of attention paid. Includes distinctiveness, affective valence, prevalence, complexity, functional value. One's characteristics (i.e. sensory capacities, arousal level, perceptual set, past reinforcement) affect attention.
- Retention - Remembering what you paid attention to. Includes symbolic coding, mental images, cognitive organization, symbolic rehearsal, motor rehearsal.
- Reproduction - Reproducing the image. Including physical capabilities, and self observation of reproduction.
- Motivation - Having a good reason to imitate. Including motives such as past (i.e. traditional behaviorism), promised (imagined incentives), and vicarious (seeing and recalling the reinforced model).
Other links to related resources about Bandura:
Click on any of the options below to access more information...
(Note: While this video focuses on the behavior of aggression Badura's theory speaks to all behaviors.)
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Bronfenbrenner (Urie) (1917-2005) American Developmental Psychologist
*While Bronfenbrenner is mentioned here in Cognitive Development his Ecological Systems Theory also impacts a child's Social & Emotional Development.
Learn more about Bronfenbrenner and an overview of his theories/contributions to child development
Ecological Systems Theory: Views the person as developing within a complex system of relationships affected by multiple levels of the surrounding environment (Berk, 1998).
- Microsystem - The microsystem contains settings in which the child has direct interactions and that have a direct influence on the child’s development such as family, peers, school, neighborhood, sports, activities, etc. The interactions at this level are considered bidirectional relationships - in other words your reactions to the people in your microsystem will affect how they treat you in return. This is the most influential level of the ecological systems theory.
- Mesosystem - The mesosystem consists of the interactions between the different parts of a child's microsystem. The mesosystem is where a child's individual microsystems do not function independently, but are interconnected and assert influence upon one another. Example - A parent (microsystem) coaches his daughter's softball team (microsystem).
- Exosystem - The exosystem refers to a setting that does not involve the child as an active participant, but still affects them. This includes decisions that have bearing on the child, but in which they have no participation in the decision-making process. For example, a mom gets a new job that allows her to spend evenings with her child and participate at school events.
- Macrosystem - Rather than direct relationships with individuals, this level contains cultural values, health, public policy, laws, etc. The culture's belief systems and ideology influences the child directly through interactions with others. For example, if it is a cultural belief that mothers should have the sole responsibility of staying at home and raising the children (macrosystem), the mother would be less likely to pursue work outside of the home (parent's workplace is part of the exosystem). This in turn would affect the amount of time that the child's mother has to interact with the child's school and neighborhood (mesosystem). The mother's ability to carry out the responsibility of taking care of her child within the family (microsystem) would also be affected.
- Chronosystem - This system consists of all of the experiences that a child has had during his or her lifetime. The chronosystem includes environmental events, major life transitions, and historical events.
For example, the divorce of a child's parents would affect a 5-year-old child differently than it would affect an 17-year-old child. Likewise, the social and academic development and growth of an African American child who grew up during the Civil Rights Movement in the 1960s would be very different than a those of an African American child who grew up during the Iraq War in the 2000s.
Other links to related resources about Bronfenbrenner:
Click on any of the options below to access more information...
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Bruner (Jerome) (1915- ) American Psychologist
*Theories build upon ideas from Piaget and Dewey
Learn more about Bruner and an overview of his theories/contributions to child development
Bruner is known for hypothesizing that any subject can be taught effectively in some intellectually honest form to any child at any stage of development (Bruner, 1960).
Stages of Representation: Learning occurs by going through three stages of representation. Each stage is a "way in which information or knowledge are stored and encoded in memory" (Mcleod, 2008). The stages are more-or-less sequential, although they are not necessarily age-related like Piaget-based theories. Going through the stages is essential to truly understanding the concept, as it helps the learner (child and adult) understand why.
VIEW VIDEO (Note: the video cuts off half way through but covers in full a great description of Bruner's Stages of Representation before the cut off point.)
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Instructional Scaffolding: Scaffolding is the support given during the learning process which is tailored to the needs of the student with the intention of helping the student achieve his/her learning goals. READ MORE
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Intuitive Thinking: The act of grasping the meaning, significance or structure of a problem or a situation without explicit reliance on the analytic apparatus of one's craft' (Bruner, 1960).
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Spiral Curriculum: Educational method in which new concepts build on previous experience and knowledge as the student progresses so that s/he is learning increasingly complex facets of the already introduced subject (Wittmer, Petersen, & Puckett, 2013).
- Enactive (Action Based) - Characterized by direct manipulation of objects (actions such as touching and feeling) without any internal representation of the objects.
- Iconic (Image Based) - Characterized by internal representation of external objects visually as images or icons.
- Symbolic (Language Based) - Characterized by symbolic representation of external objects through words, formulas or other symbolic means. .
VIEW VIDEO (Note: the video cuts off half way through but covers in full a great description of Bruner's Stages of Representation before the cut off point.)
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Instructional Scaffolding: Scaffolding is the support given during the learning process which is tailored to the needs of the student with the intention of helping the student achieve his/her learning goals. READ MORE
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Intuitive Thinking: The act of grasping the meaning, significance or structure of a problem or a situation without explicit reliance on the analytic apparatus of one's craft' (Bruner, 1960).
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Spiral Curriculum: Educational method in which new concepts build on previous experience and knowledge as the student progresses so that s/he is learning increasingly complex facets of the already introduced subject (Wittmer, Petersen, & Puckett, 2013).
Discovery Learning: Discovery learning is an inquiry-based, constructivist learning theory that takes place in problem solving situations where the learner draws on his or her own past experience and existing knowledge to discover facts and relationships and new truths to be learned. Students interact with the world by exploring and manipulating objects, wrestling with questions or controversies, and performing experiments. As a result, students may be more likely to remember concepts and knowledge discovered on their own (as opposed to the transmission model when they are simply told about something). This idea of discovery learning is often referred to as constructivism, which emphasizes the active role of the learner in building understanding and making sense of information.
(Resource: http://www.learning-theories.com/discovery-learning-bruner.html,
http://education-portal.com/academy/lesson/jerome-bruners-theory-of-development-discovery-learning-representation.html#lesson)
(Resource: http://www.learning-theories.com/discovery-learning-bruner.html,
http://education-portal.com/academy/lesson/jerome-bruners-theory-of-development-discovery-learning-representation.html#lesson)
Other links to related resources about Bruner's Theories:
Click on any of the options below to access more information...
- Jerome Bruner and the process of education - Article
- Research for Teachers: Jerome Bruner's Constructivist Model and the Spiral Curriculum for Teaching and Learning - Article (you will need to scroll to the bottom to download article)
- The Spiral Curriculum - Article
Recommended Books for Bruner from the Teacher Resource Library:
Section - Community and Culture:
Section - Community and Culture:
- Bruner - The Culture of Education
- Bruner - The Process of Education
- Bruner - Child's Talk
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Dewey (John) (1859-1952) American Philosopher & Psychologist
Learn more about Dewey and an overview of his theories/contributions to child development
"[Every school must become] an embryonic community life, active with types of occupations that reflect the life of the larger society and permeated throughout with the spirit of art, history and science. When the school introduces and trains each child of society into membership within such a little community, saturating him with the spirit of service, and providing him with instruments of effective self-direction, we shall have the deepest and best guarantee of a larger society which is worthy, lovely and harmonious" (Dewey, 1980).
*Dewey's contributions to the field are many and cannot be summed up in a few defined theories. Below contains a brief excerpt from an article that sums up Dewey's primary beliefs about learning and education...
"The child learns best through direct personal experience. In the primary stage of education these experiences should revolve around games and occupations analogous to the activities through which mankind satisfies its basic material needs for food, clothing, shelter and protection. The city child is far removed from the processes of production: food comes from the store in cans and packages, clothing is made in distant factories, water comes from the faucet.
The school has to give children, not only an insight into the social importance of such activities, but above all the opportunities to practice them in play form. This leads naturally into the problem or “project method” which has come to be identified with the essence of the progressive procedure.
Children soak up knowledge and retain it for use when they are spontaneously induced to look into matters of compelling interest to themselves. They progress fastest in learning, not through being mechanically drilled in prefabricated material, but by doing work, experimenting with things, changing them in purposive ways.
Occasionally children need to be alone and on their own. But in the main they will learn more by doing things together. By choosing what their group would like to do, planning their work, helping one another do it, trying out various ways and means of performing the tasks, involved and discovering what will forward the project, comparing and appraising the results, the youngsters would best develop their latent powers, their skill, understanding, self-reliance and cooperative habits.
The questions and answers arising from such joint enterprises would expand the child’s horizon by linking his immediate activities with the larger life of the community. Small children of six or seven who take up weaving, for example, can be stimulated to inquire into the cultivation of cotton, its processes of manufacture, the history of spinning devices. Such lines of inquiry emerging from their own interests and occupations would open windows upon the past, introduce them naturally to history, geography, science and invention, and establish vivid connections between what they are doing in school and the basic activities of human existence.
Participation in meaningful projects, learning by doing, encouraging problems and solving them, not only facilitates the acquisition and retention of knowledge but fosters the right character traits: unselfishness, helpfulness, critical intelligence, individual initiative, etc. Learning is more than assimilating; it is the development of habits which enable the growing person to deal effectively and most intelligently with his environment. And where that environment is in rapid flux, as in modern society, the elasticity which promotes readjustment to what is new is the most necessary of habits" (Ward, 1960).
ACCESS FULL ARTICLE
*You are encouraged to conduct further research if you are interested in learning about Dewey's ideas more in depth.
*Dewey's contributions to the field are many and cannot be summed up in a few defined theories. Below contains a brief excerpt from an article that sums up Dewey's primary beliefs about learning and education...
"The child learns best through direct personal experience. In the primary stage of education these experiences should revolve around games and occupations analogous to the activities through which mankind satisfies its basic material needs for food, clothing, shelter and protection. The city child is far removed from the processes of production: food comes from the store in cans and packages, clothing is made in distant factories, water comes from the faucet.
The school has to give children, not only an insight into the social importance of such activities, but above all the opportunities to practice them in play form. This leads naturally into the problem or “project method” which has come to be identified with the essence of the progressive procedure.
Children soak up knowledge and retain it for use when they are spontaneously induced to look into matters of compelling interest to themselves. They progress fastest in learning, not through being mechanically drilled in prefabricated material, but by doing work, experimenting with things, changing them in purposive ways.
Occasionally children need to be alone and on their own. But in the main they will learn more by doing things together. By choosing what their group would like to do, planning their work, helping one another do it, trying out various ways and means of performing the tasks, involved and discovering what will forward the project, comparing and appraising the results, the youngsters would best develop their latent powers, their skill, understanding, self-reliance and cooperative habits.
The questions and answers arising from such joint enterprises would expand the child’s horizon by linking his immediate activities with the larger life of the community. Small children of six or seven who take up weaving, for example, can be stimulated to inquire into the cultivation of cotton, its processes of manufacture, the history of spinning devices. Such lines of inquiry emerging from their own interests and occupations would open windows upon the past, introduce them naturally to history, geography, science and invention, and establish vivid connections between what they are doing in school and the basic activities of human existence.
Participation in meaningful projects, learning by doing, encouraging problems and solving them, not only facilitates the acquisition and retention of knowledge but fosters the right character traits: unselfishness, helpfulness, critical intelligence, individual initiative, etc. Learning is more than assimilating; it is the development of habits which enable the growing person to deal effectively and most intelligently with his environment. And where that environment is in rapid flux, as in modern society, the elasticity which promotes readjustment to what is new is the most necessary of habits" (Ward, 1960).
ACCESS FULL ARTICLE
*You are encouraged to conduct further research if you are interested in learning about Dewey's ideas more in depth.
Other links to related resources about Gardner's Theory:
Click on any of the options below to access more information...
Recommended Books for Dewey from the Teacher Resource Library:
Section - Educational Approaches:
Section - Educational Approaches:
- Dewey - Democracy in Education
- Tanner - Dewey's Laboratory School: Lessons for Today
- Dewey - Experience and Education
- Dewey - How We Think
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Fröbel (Friedrich) (1782-1852) German Pedagogue
Learn more about Frobel and an overview of his theories/contributions to child development
Fröbel created the concept of the kindergarten and laid the foundation for modern education based on the recognition that children have unique needs and capabilities. Fröbel's great insight was to recognise the importance of the activity of the child in learning. He introduced the concept of “free work” into pedagogy and established the “game” as the typical form that life took in childhood, and also the game’s educational worth. Activities in the first kindergarten included singing, dancing, gardening and self-directed play with the Froebel Gifts - educational toys.
"Play is the highest expression of human development in childhood for it alone is the free expression of what is in a child's soul." - Frobel
"Play is the highest expression of human development in childhood for it alone is the free expression of what is in a child's soul." - Frobel
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Gardner (Howard) (1943- ) American Developmental Psychologist
Learn more about Gardner and an overview of his theories/contributions to child development
Theory of Multiple Intelligences: According to Gardner, we are all able to know the world through language, logical-mathematical analysis, spatial representation, musical thinking, the use of the body to solve problems or to make things, an understanding of other individuals, and an understanding of ourselves. Where individuals differ is in the strength of these intelligences - the so-called profile of intelligences -and in the ways in which such intelligences are invoked and combined to carry out different tasks, solve diverse problems, and progress in various domains (Gardner, 1991).
READ MORE
Gardner (Howard) (1943- ) American Developmental Psychologist
Learn more about Gardner and an overview of his theories/contributions to child development
Theory of Multiple Intelligences: According to Gardner, we are all able to know the world through language, logical-mathematical analysis, spatial representation, musical thinking, the use of the body to solve problems or to make things, an understanding of other individuals, and an understanding of ourselves. Where individuals differ is in the strength of these intelligences - the so-called profile of intelligences -and in the ways in which such intelligences are invoked and combined to carry out different tasks, solve diverse problems, and progress in various domains (Gardner, 1991).
READ MORE
- Linguistic Intelligence - Use words effectively. These learners have highly developed auditory skills and often think in words. They like reading, playing word games, making up poetry or stories. They can be taught by encouraging them to say and see words, read books together. Tools include computers, games, multimedia, books, tape recorders, and lecture.
- Logical/Mathematical Intelligence - Demonstrate skills in reasoning, calculating. Think conceptually, abstractly and are able to see and explore patterns and relationships. They like to experiment, solve puzzles, ask cosmic questions. They can be taught through logic games, investigations, mysteries. They need to learn and form concepts before they can deal with details.
- Spatial Intelligence - Think in terms of physical space, as do architects and sailors. Very aware of their environments. They like to draw, do jigsaw puzzles, read maps, daydream. They can be taught through drawings, verbal and physical imagery. Tools include models, graphics, charts, photographs, drawings, 3-D modeling, video, videoconferencing, television, multimedia, texts with pictures/charts/graphs.
- Musical Intelligence - Show sensitivity to rhythm and sound. They love music, but they are also sensitive to sounds in their environments. They may study better with music in the background. They can be taught by turning lessons into lyrics, speaking rhythmically, tapping out time. Tools include musical instruments, music, radio, stereo, CD-ROM, multimedia.
- Naturalist Intelligence - Recognize and categorize plants, animals, and other objects in nature. Good at categorizing and cataloguing information easily. Enjoy camping, gardening, hiking and exploring the outdoors. Does not enjoy learning unfamiliar topics that have no connection with nature. (Resource: http://psychology.about.com/od/educationalpsychology/ss/multiple-intell_9.htm)
- Interpersonal Intelligence - Demonstrate skills in understanding, interacting with others. These students learn through interaction. They have many friends, empathy for others, street smarts. They can be taught through group activities, seminars, dialogues. Tools include the telephone, audio conferencing, time and attention from the instructor, video conferencing, writing, computer conferencing, E-mail.
- Intrapersonal Intelligence - Understanding one's own interests, goals. These learners tend to shy away from others. They're in tune with their inner feelings; they have wisdom, intuition and motivation, as well as a strong will, confidence and opinions. They can be taught through independent study and introspection. Tools include books, creative materials, diaries, privacy and time. They are the most independent of the learners.
- Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence - Use the body effectively, like a dancer or a surgeon. Keen sense of body awareness. They like movement, making things, touching. They communicate well through body language and can be taught through physical activity, hands-on learning, acting out, role playing. Tools include equipment and real objects.
Other links to related resources about Gardner's Theory:
Click on any of the options below to access more information...
Recommended Books for Gardner in the Teacher Resource Library:
Section - Educational Approaches:
Section - Educational Approaches:
- Gardner - Frames of Mind
- Gardner - Intelligence Reframed
- Gardner - The Disciplined Mind
- Gardner - The Unschooled Mind
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Piaget (Jean) (1896-1980) Swiss Psychologist
Learn more about Piaget and his theories/contributions to child development
Stages of Development: A cognitive-developmental theory posing that children actively (rather than as passive recipients) construct knowledge as they manipulate and explore their world. This development takes place in stages that are characterized by qualitatively distinct ways of thinking (Berk, 1998).
Concepts related to different stages of development:
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Adaptation Theory: The process of building schemas through direct interaction with the environment. Made up of two complementary processes: Assimilation and Accommodation (Berk, 1998).
Piaget (Jean) (1896-1980) Swiss Psychologist
Learn more about Piaget and his theories/contributions to child development
Stages of Development: A cognitive-developmental theory posing that children actively (rather than as passive recipients) construct knowledge as they manipulate and explore their world. This development takes place in stages that are characterized by qualitatively distinct ways of thinking (Berk, 1998).
Concepts related to different stages of development:
- Object Permanence (0-2 years) - The recognition that an object continues to exist even when it is temporarily out of sight (Bee, 2000).
- Animism (2-7 years) - The belief that inanimate objects have lifelike qualities, such as thoughts, wishes, feelings, and intentions (Berk, 1996).
- Egocentrism (2-7 years) - A cognitive state when the individual sees the world only from his perspective, without awareness that there are other perspectives (Bee, 2000).
- Centration (2-7 years) - The tendency to focus on one aspect of a situation and neglect other important features. Distinguished from decentration (Berk, 1998).
- Conservation (7+ years) - The understanding that physical characteristics of objects remain the same, even when their outward appearance changes (Berk, 1996).
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Adaptation Theory: The process of building schemas through direct interaction with the environment. Made up of two complementary processes: Assimilation and Accommodation (Berk, 1998).
- Schemas/Schemas - Cognitive or mental structures used to process and identify or classify incoming stimuli in order to make sense of an experience/information (Wadsworth, 1996).
- Assimilation - Taking in of new experiences or information into existing schemes/schemas. Experiences are modified/interpreted so as to fit with these preexisting schemas (Bee, 2000).
- Accommodation - Taking in of new experiences in such a way that new schemas are created and old ones adjusted to produce a better fit with the environment (as opposed to fitting the information into preexisting schemas) (Berk, 1998).
- Disequilibrium - A state of imbalance between assimilation and accommodation (Wadsworth, 1996). Consider it that moment when things do not seem to make sense.
- Equilibrium - A state of balance between assimilation and accommodation (Wadsworth, 1996). Consider it that moment when everything seems to make sense.
Other links to related resources about Piaget's theories:
Click on any of the options below to access more information...
Recommended Books for Piaget in the Teacher Resource Library:
Section - Educational Approaches:
Section - Educational Approaches:
- Duckworth - The Having of Wonderful Ideas
- Duckworth - Tell Me More: Listening to Learners Explain
- Bybee & Sund - Piaget for Educators
- Forman & Kuschner - The Child's Construction of Knowledge: Piaget for Teaching Children
- Green, Ford, & Flamer - Measurement and Piaget
- Piaget - Understanding Causality
- Wadswroth - Piaget for the Classroom Teacher
- Wadsworth - Piaget's Theory of Cognitive and Affective Development
- Wadsworth - Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development
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Sameroff, (Arnold) Professor of Psychology University of Michigan
Learn more about Sameroff and an overview of his theories/contributions to child development
Transactional Model of Development: Developmental outcomes are the result of the interplay between child and context across time, in which the state of one impacts the next state of the other in a continuous process. Sameroff's theory of development is often discussed in relation to Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Systems Model and builds upon Bandura's theory of reciprocal causation that states the child is both shaped by the environment and their behavior in turn produces changes in their environment.
For example, let's look at the interplay of the teacher-student relationship. The student and the teacher bidirectionally influence one another's behaviors (i.e., the behavior of one influences the behavior/response of the other and this continues in a cycle). In the transactional model, a complex web of factors contributes to behavior above and beyond the simple linear impact of teacher on student (or student on teacher). For example, numerous factors such as the teacher's health, the physical arrangement of the classroom, curricular demands placed on the student, and peer influences to name a few, may effect the student and teacher at any time. Over a short period of time both the teacher's and the student's behavior is shaped by the effects of not only the behavior of each participant in the interaction, but also the effect of the participants' behavior on the learning environment.
(Resource: Sutherland & Morgan, 2003)
For example, let's look at the interplay of the teacher-student relationship. The student and the teacher bidirectionally influence one another's behaviors (i.e., the behavior of one influences the behavior/response of the other and this continues in a cycle). In the transactional model, a complex web of factors contributes to behavior above and beyond the simple linear impact of teacher on student (or student on teacher). For example, numerous factors such as the teacher's health, the physical arrangement of the classroom, curricular demands placed on the student, and peer influences to name a few, may effect the student and teacher at any time. Over a short period of time both the teacher's and the student's behavior is shaped by the effects of not only the behavior of each participant in the interaction, but also the effect of the participants' behavior on the learning environment.
(Resource: Sutherland & Morgan, 2003)
Other links to related resources about Transactional Model of Development:
Click on any of the options below to access more information...
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Skinner (B.F.) (1904-1990) American Psychologist
Learn more about Skinner and an overview of his theories/contributions to child development
Operant Conditioning: Learning that occurs when a response to an environmental cue is reinforced.
Reinforcement: Any action or event that increases the probability that a response will be repeated.
Negative Reinforcement: Reinforcement in which a painful of annoying stimulus is taken away.
Example - the seat belt buzzer goes off once you put your seatbelt on in the car.
Positive Reinforcement: Reinforcement in which a stimulus is given or added that is desirable to the subject.
Example - a child receives candy every time she goes to the bathroom on the potty.
(Resource: Bukatko & Daehler, 2012)
Reinforcement: Any action or event that increases the probability that a response will be repeated.
Negative Reinforcement: Reinforcement in which a painful of annoying stimulus is taken away.
Example - the seat belt buzzer goes off once you put your seatbelt on in the car.
Positive Reinforcement: Reinforcement in which a stimulus is given or added that is desirable to the subject.
Example - a child receives candy every time she goes to the bathroom on the potty.
(Resource: Bukatko & Daehler, 2012)
Other links to related resources about Piaget's theories:
Click on any of the options below to access more information...
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Vygotsky (Lev) (1986-1934) Russian Psychologist
Learn more about Vygotsky and an overview of his theories/contributions to child development
Zone of Proximal Development Theory (ZPD): Refers to the range of behaviors and tasks within what a child can do independently (actual level of development) and what the child can do with the assistance of an adult and/or more expert peer (potential level of development) (Bodrova & Leong, 2007).
Scaffolding: The process of providing and gradually removing, external support for learning. During scaffolding, the task itself is not changed, but what the learner initially does is made easier with assistance. As the learner takes more responsibility for performance of the task, less assistance is provided (Bodrova & Leong, 2007).
*While "scaffolding" is commonly associated with Vygotsky's ZPD theory, the idea of scaffolding did not originate with Vygotsky. Jerome Bruner is often credited with the idea.
SEE AN EXAMPLE OF ZPD AND SCAFFOLDING
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Cultural Historical Theory: Culture influences cognition and the child's entire social world shapes not just what he knows but how he thinks. Social context is an historical concept. The human mind is the product of both human history, or phylogeny, and a person's individual history, or ontogeny. The modern human mind has evolved with the history of the human species (Bodrova & Leong, 2007).
Sociocultural Learning/Development Theory: Cognitive development is a socially mediated process where ways of thinking and behaving that make up a community's culture are acquired through cooperative dialogues with more knowledgable members of society (Berk, 1998). Learning and development takes place on two levels: first, on the social level between people (interpersonal level) and later on the individual level when it is internalized inside the child (intrapersonal level) (Vygotsky, 1978).
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Lower Mental Functions: Cognitive processes common to both higher animals and human beings that depend primarily on maturation to develop. Examples are sensations, reactive attention, spontaneous memory, and sensorimotor intelligence (Bodrova & Leong, 2007).
Higher Mental Functions: Cognitive processes unique to humans and acquired through learning and teaching. They are deliberate, mediated, internalized behaviors built upon lower mental functions. Examples are mediated perception, focused attention, deliberate memory, logical thinking, self-regulation, and other metacognitive processes (Bodrova & Leong, 2007).
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Mediation: The use of an object or symbol to represent a specific behavior or another object in the environment (Bodrova & Leong, 2007).
Mediator: Something that stands as an intermediary between the child and the environment and that facilitates a particular behavior. A mediator becomes a mental tool when the child incorporates it into her own activity (Bodrova & Leong, 2007).
Mental Tools: Internalized tools that extend mental abilities, helping us to remember, attend, and to solve problems. Mental tools are different in each culture and are taught to succeeding generations. They help the child master his own behavior. Examples are mediators and language (Bodrova & Leong, 2007).
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Inner Speech: Speech that is totally internal, inaudible, self-directed, but remains some of the characteristics of external speech. People use inner speech to talk to themselves, hearing the words but not saying them out loud (Bodrova & Leong, 2007).
Private Speech (Self Talk): Self-directed speech that is not intended for communication to others. Private speech is turned inward to self and has a self regulatory function (Bodrova & Leong, 2007).
Public Speech: Language directed at others that has a social, communicative function. Public speech is spoken aloud and directs or communicates to others (Bodrova & Leong, 2007).
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Other Regulation: Describes a situation in which a person is regulating another person or being regulated by someone else. The other element of other-regulation is the child’s ability to regulate other people’s behaviors - and learning to be both the regulator and the object of regulation are equally important for the development of self-regulation (Bodrova & Leong, 2007).
Vygotsky (Lev) (1986-1934) Russian Psychologist
Learn more about Vygotsky and an overview of his theories/contributions to child development
Zone of Proximal Development Theory (ZPD): Refers to the range of behaviors and tasks within what a child can do independently (actual level of development) and what the child can do with the assistance of an adult and/or more expert peer (potential level of development) (Bodrova & Leong, 2007).
Scaffolding: The process of providing and gradually removing, external support for learning. During scaffolding, the task itself is not changed, but what the learner initially does is made easier with assistance. As the learner takes more responsibility for performance of the task, less assistance is provided (Bodrova & Leong, 2007).
*While "scaffolding" is commonly associated with Vygotsky's ZPD theory, the idea of scaffolding did not originate with Vygotsky. Jerome Bruner is often credited with the idea.
SEE AN EXAMPLE OF ZPD AND SCAFFOLDING
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Cultural Historical Theory: Culture influences cognition and the child's entire social world shapes not just what he knows but how he thinks. Social context is an historical concept. The human mind is the product of both human history, or phylogeny, and a person's individual history, or ontogeny. The modern human mind has evolved with the history of the human species (Bodrova & Leong, 2007).
Sociocultural Learning/Development Theory: Cognitive development is a socially mediated process where ways of thinking and behaving that make up a community's culture are acquired through cooperative dialogues with more knowledgable members of society (Berk, 1998). Learning and development takes place on two levels: first, on the social level between people (interpersonal level) and later on the individual level when it is internalized inside the child (intrapersonal level) (Vygotsky, 1978).
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Lower Mental Functions: Cognitive processes common to both higher animals and human beings that depend primarily on maturation to develop. Examples are sensations, reactive attention, spontaneous memory, and sensorimotor intelligence (Bodrova & Leong, 2007).
- Sensation - Using any of the 5 senses in mental processing
- Reactive attention - Attention that is dominated by strong environmental stimuli
- Spontaneous or associative memory - The ability to remember something after 2 stimuli are presented together many times
- Sensorimotor intelligence - Problem-solving in situations that involve physical or motor manipulations and trial and error.
Higher Mental Functions: Cognitive processes unique to humans and acquired through learning and teaching. They are deliberate, mediated, internalized behaviors built upon lower mental functions. Examples are mediated perception, focused attention, deliberate memory, logical thinking, self-regulation, and other metacognitive processes (Bodrova & Leong, 2007).
- Mediated perception - The ability to distinguish between two objects of the same category (the color blue) and perceive them differently (turquiose blue and sky blue)
- Focused attention - The ability to concentrate on any stimulus whether or not it is exceptionally salient or striking
- Deliberate memory - The use of memory strategies to remember something
- Logical thinking - The ability to solve problems mentally using logic and other strategies.
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Mediation: The use of an object or symbol to represent a specific behavior or another object in the environment (Bodrova & Leong, 2007).
Mediator: Something that stands as an intermediary between the child and the environment and that facilitates a particular behavior. A mediator becomes a mental tool when the child incorporates it into her own activity (Bodrova & Leong, 2007).
Mental Tools: Internalized tools that extend mental abilities, helping us to remember, attend, and to solve problems. Mental tools are different in each culture and are taught to succeeding generations. They help the child master his own behavior. Examples are mediators and language (Bodrova & Leong, 2007).
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Inner Speech: Speech that is totally internal, inaudible, self-directed, but remains some of the characteristics of external speech. People use inner speech to talk to themselves, hearing the words but not saying them out loud (Bodrova & Leong, 2007).
Private Speech (Self Talk): Self-directed speech that is not intended for communication to others. Private speech is turned inward to self and has a self regulatory function (Bodrova & Leong, 2007).
Public Speech: Language directed at others that has a social, communicative function. Public speech is spoken aloud and directs or communicates to others (Bodrova & Leong, 2007).
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Other Regulation: Describes a situation in which a person is regulating another person or being regulated by someone else. The other element of other-regulation is the child’s ability to regulate other people’s behaviors - and learning to be both the regulator and the object of regulation are equally important for the development of self-regulation (Bodrova & Leong, 2007).
Other links to related resources about Vygotsky's theories:
Click on any of the options below to access more information...
Recommended Books for Vygotsky from the Teacher Resource Library :
Section - Community and Culture:
Section - Community and Culture:
- The Cultural Na
Section - Educational Approaches:
- Bodrova & Leong - Tools of the Mind: The Vygotskian Approach to Early Childhood Education
- Berk & Winsler - Scaffolding Children's Learning: Vygotsky & Early Childhood Education
- Kozulin, Gindis, Ageyev, & Miller - Vygotsky's Educational Theory in Cultural Context
- Vygotsky - Mind in Society
- Vygotsky - Thought and Language
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Other general resources about Theories/Theorists of Cognitive Development:
Recommended Books for Theories and Concepts of Cognitive Development from the Teacher Resource Library:
Section - Educational Approaches:
**Any of the textbooks located in this section have information on most if not all of the theorists/theories/concepts/ideas from above)
Section - Educational Approaches:
- Roopnarine & Johnson - Approaches to Early Childhood Education
- Bee - The Developing Child
- Berk - Development Through the Lifespan
- Bukatko & Daehler - Child Development: A Topical Approach
- Flavell, Miller & Miller - Cognitive Development
- Gordon - Human Development
- Mayer - Thinking, Problem Solving, Cognition
- Ormond - Human Learning
- Saltz - The Cognitive Bases of Human Learning
- Shonkoff & Phillips - From Neurons to Neighborhoods
- Siegler & Alibali - Children's Thinking
- Wittmer, Petersen, & Puckett - The Young Child: Development from Prebirth Through Age Eight
**Any of the textbooks located in this section have information on most if not all of the theorists/theories/concepts/ideas from above)
Foundational Learning Theories of Cognitive Development:
Activity Theory (Originator - Vygotsky and other contributors): Activity Theory is more of a descriptive meta-theory or framework than a predictive theory. The unit of analysis is motivated activity directed at an object (goal). Includes cultural and technical mediation of human activity, artifacts in use (and not in isolation). Activities consist of goal-directed actions that are conscious. Constituents of activity are not fixed; they can dynamically change.
(Resource for information above: http://www.learning-theories.com/activity-theory.html)
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Behavior Learning Theory (Contributors - Bandura, Pavlov, Thorndike, Skinner, Watson): Views learning as a change in the form and frequency of behavior as a consequence of environmental events (Schunk, 2004). Assumes s learner is essentially passive, responding to environmental stimuli. The learner starts of as a clean slate (tabula rosa) and behavior is shaped through positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement. All behavior can be explained without the need to consider internal mental states or consciousness. (Resource for information above: http://www.learning-theories.com/behaviorism.html)
Common Terms of Behavior Learning Theory:
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Cognitive Learning Theory (Contributors - Bruner, Piaget, and more): Attempts to understand how the human mind works and processes information. Views learning as the acquisition of knowledge and cognitive structures due to information processing (Schunk, 2004). Learning is defined as a change in the learner's schemata. (Resource: http://www.learning-theories.com/cognitivism.html)
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Constructionist Learning Theory (Builds upon Constructivist Learning Theory): Inspired by the constructivist theory that individual learners construct mental models to understand the world around them. However, constructionism holds that learning can happen most effectively when people are also active in making tangible objects in the real world. (Resource: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructionism_(learning_theory))
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Constructivist Learning Theory (Contributors - Bruner, Dewey, Piaget, Vygotsky): The learner constructs knowledge by actively engaging in a process of meaning making in an authentic environment, one that reflects real life situations and situations currently relevant to the learner at the time. Knowledge is continually constructed and reconstructed through direct actions with objects in the environment and others. Actions can be physical (as manipulation of objects) or mental (such as wondering about something). The learner plays an active role in constructing knowledge (Wadsworth, 1996).
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Cultural Historical Learning Theory (Originator - Vygotsky): Culture influences cognition and the child's entire social world shapes not just what he knows but how he thinks. Social context is an historical concept. The human mind is the product of both human history, or phylogeny, and a person's individual history, or ontogeny. The modern human mind has evolved with the history of the human species (Bodrova & Leong, 2007).
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Discovery Learning (Originator - Bruner): Discovery learning is an inquiry-based, constructivist learning theory that takes place in problem solving situations where the learner draws on his or her own past experience and existing knowledge to discover facts and relationships and new truths to be learned. Students interact with the world by exploring and manipulating objects, wrestling with questions or controversies, and performing experiments. As a result, students may be more likely to remember concepts and knowledge discovered on their own (as opposed to the transmission model when they are simply told about something). This idea of discovery learning is often referred to as constructivism, which emphasizes the active role of the learner in building understanding and making sense of information.
(Resource: http://www.learning-theories.com/discovery-learning-bruner.html,
http://education-portal.com/academy/lesson/jerome-bruners-theory-of-development-discovery-learning-representation.html#lesson)
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Distributed Cognition (Originator - Hutchins): Proposes that cognition and knowledge are not confined to an individual, rather they are distributed across objects, individuals, artifacts, and tools in the environment. (Resource: http://www.learning-theories.com/distributed-cognition-dcog.html)
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Information Processing Theory (Originator - George A. Miller): This theory is based on the idea that humans process the information they receive, rather than merely responding to stimuli. This perspective equates the mind to a computer, which is responsible for analyzing information from the environment. According to the standard information-processing model for mental development, the mind’s machinery includes attention mechanisms for bringing information in, working memory for actively manipulating information, and long term memory for passively holding information so that it can be used in the future. Builds upon Cognitive Theories of Learning. (Resource: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_processing_theory)
VIEW VIDEO
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Guided Participation (Originator - Barbara Rogoff): Guided participation refers to the process by which children actively acquire new skills and problem-solving capabilities through their participation in meaningful activities alongside parents, adults, or other more experienced companions. Guided participation emphasizes the active role of the child in learning and cognitive growth and the complementary role of parents and other caring adults in supporting, assisting, and guiding the child's intellectual development. Support includes both explicit verbal and non-verbal guidance as well as more subtle direction through the arrangement and organization of children's interactions with the environment. Guided participation occurs throughout the course of childhood as children progress from a peripheral and dependent role to one of increased autonomy and responsibility while they strive to master the challenges posed by the surrounding social and cultural milieu. Builds upon theories from Vygotsky.(Resource: http://www.education.com/reference/article/guided-participation/)
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Social Learning Theory (Originator - Bandura): An approach that emphasizes the role of modeling, or observational learning, in the development of behavior. According to Bandura, children acquire many favorable and unfavorable responses simply by watching and listening to others around them. Modeling, otherwise known as imitation or observational learning, became a widely recognized basis for development. Children gradually become more selective in what they imitate. From watching others engage in self-praise and self-blame and through feedback about the worth of their own actions, children develop personal standards for behavior and a sense of self-efficacy - beliefs about their own abilities and characteristics - that guide responses in particular situations (Berk, 1998).
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Situated Cognition (Learning) Theory (Originator - Lave): The idea that thinking is situated (located) in physical and social contexts (Schunk, 2004). Builds upon ideas from Piaget and Vygotsky.
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Sociocultural Learning Theory (Originator - Vygotsky): Cognitive development is a socially mediated process where ways of thinking and behaving that make up a community's culture are acquired through cooperative dialogues with more knowledgable members of society (Berk, 1998). Learning and development takes place on two levels: first, on the social level between people (interpersonal level) and later on the individual level when it is internalized inside the child (intrapersonal level) (Vygotsky, 1978).
(Resource for information above: http://www.learning-theories.com/activity-theory.html)
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Behavior Learning Theory (Contributors - Bandura, Pavlov, Thorndike, Skinner, Watson): Views learning as a change in the form and frequency of behavior as a consequence of environmental events (Schunk, 2004). Assumes s learner is essentially passive, responding to environmental stimuli. The learner starts of as a clean slate (tabula rosa) and behavior is shaped through positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement. All behavior can be explained without the need to consider internal mental states or consciousness. (Resource for information above: http://www.learning-theories.com/behaviorism.html)
Common Terms of Behavior Learning Theory:
- Stimulus - An object or event that stimulates an organism to respond.
- Conditioning - The type of learning involving stimulus-response connections, in which the response is conditional on the stimulus.
- Neutral Stimulus - An external stimulus that does not ordinarily cause a reflex response or an emotional response.
- Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) - Any stimulus that causes a reflex or emotional response without the necessity of learning or conditioning.
- Unconditioned Response (UCR) -The reflex response evoked by a stimulus without the necessity of learning.
- Conditioned Stimulus (CS) - A previously neutral stimulus that, through conditioning, now causes a classically conditioned response.
- Conditioned Response (CR) - A learned response to a previously neutral stimulus that has been associated with the stimulus through repeated pairings.
- Classical Conditioning - Learning a response to a neutral stimulus when that neutral stimulus is paired with a stimulus that causes a reflex response.
- Operant Conditioning - Learning that occurs when a response to an environmental cue is reinforced.
- Conditioned Emotional Response - Any classically conditioned emotional response to a previously neutral stimulus.
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Cognitive Learning Theory (Contributors - Bruner, Piaget, and more): Attempts to understand how the human mind works and processes information. Views learning as the acquisition of knowledge and cognitive structures due to information processing (Schunk, 2004). Learning is defined as a change in the learner's schemata. (Resource: http://www.learning-theories.com/cognitivism.html)
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Constructionist Learning Theory (Builds upon Constructivist Learning Theory): Inspired by the constructivist theory that individual learners construct mental models to understand the world around them. However, constructionism holds that learning can happen most effectively when people are also active in making tangible objects in the real world. (Resource: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructionism_(learning_theory))
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Constructivist Learning Theory (Contributors - Bruner, Dewey, Piaget, Vygotsky): The learner constructs knowledge by actively engaging in a process of meaning making in an authentic environment, one that reflects real life situations and situations currently relevant to the learner at the time. Knowledge is continually constructed and reconstructed through direct actions with objects in the environment and others. Actions can be physical (as manipulation of objects) or mental (such as wondering about something). The learner plays an active role in constructing knowledge (Wadsworth, 1996).
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Cultural Historical Learning Theory (Originator - Vygotsky): Culture influences cognition and the child's entire social world shapes not just what he knows but how he thinks. Social context is an historical concept. The human mind is the product of both human history, or phylogeny, and a person's individual history, or ontogeny. The modern human mind has evolved with the history of the human species (Bodrova & Leong, 2007).
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Discovery Learning (Originator - Bruner): Discovery learning is an inquiry-based, constructivist learning theory that takes place in problem solving situations where the learner draws on his or her own past experience and existing knowledge to discover facts and relationships and new truths to be learned. Students interact with the world by exploring and manipulating objects, wrestling with questions or controversies, and performing experiments. As a result, students may be more likely to remember concepts and knowledge discovered on their own (as opposed to the transmission model when they are simply told about something). This idea of discovery learning is often referred to as constructivism, which emphasizes the active role of the learner in building understanding and making sense of information.
(Resource: http://www.learning-theories.com/discovery-learning-bruner.html,
http://education-portal.com/academy/lesson/jerome-bruners-theory-of-development-discovery-learning-representation.html#lesson)
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Distributed Cognition (Originator - Hutchins): Proposes that cognition and knowledge are not confined to an individual, rather they are distributed across objects, individuals, artifacts, and tools in the environment. (Resource: http://www.learning-theories.com/distributed-cognition-dcog.html)
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Information Processing Theory (Originator - George A. Miller): This theory is based on the idea that humans process the information they receive, rather than merely responding to stimuli. This perspective equates the mind to a computer, which is responsible for analyzing information from the environment. According to the standard information-processing model for mental development, the mind’s machinery includes attention mechanisms for bringing information in, working memory for actively manipulating information, and long term memory for passively holding information so that it can be used in the future. Builds upon Cognitive Theories of Learning. (Resource: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_processing_theory)
VIEW VIDEO
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Guided Participation (Originator - Barbara Rogoff): Guided participation refers to the process by which children actively acquire new skills and problem-solving capabilities through their participation in meaningful activities alongside parents, adults, or other more experienced companions. Guided participation emphasizes the active role of the child in learning and cognitive growth and the complementary role of parents and other caring adults in supporting, assisting, and guiding the child's intellectual development. Support includes both explicit verbal and non-verbal guidance as well as more subtle direction through the arrangement and organization of children's interactions with the environment. Guided participation occurs throughout the course of childhood as children progress from a peripheral and dependent role to one of increased autonomy and responsibility while they strive to master the challenges posed by the surrounding social and cultural milieu. Builds upon theories from Vygotsky.(Resource: http://www.education.com/reference/article/guided-participation/)
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Social Learning Theory (Originator - Bandura): An approach that emphasizes the role of modeling, or observational learning, in the development of behavior. According to Bandura, children acquire many favorable and unfavorable responses simply by watching and listening to others around them. Modeling, otherwise known as imitation or observational learning, became a widely recognized basis for development. Children gradually become more selective in what they imitate. From watching others engage in self-praise and self-blame and through feedback about the worth of their own actions, children develop personal standards for behavior and a sense of self-efficacy - beliefs about their own abilities and characteristics - that guide responses in particular situations (Berk, 1998).
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Situated Cognition (Learning) Theory (Originator - Lave): The idea that thinking is situated (located) in physical and social contexts (Schunk, 2004). Builds upon ideas from Piaget and Vygotsky.
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Sociocultural Learning Theory (Originator - Vygotsky): Cognitive development is a socially mediated process where ways of thinking and behaving that make up a community's culture are acquired through cooperative dialogues with more knowledgable members of society (Berk, 1998). Learning and development takes place on two levels: first, on the social level between people (interpersonal level) and later on the individual level when it is internalized inside the child (intrapersonal level) (Vygotsky, 1978).
Other links to related resources about Learning Theories:
Click on any of the options below to access more information...
Recommended Books for Learning Theories in the Teacher Resource Library:
Section - Community and Culture:
Section - Community and Culture:
- Rogoff - The Cultural Nature of Human Development
- Chaille - Constructivism Across the Curriculum in Early Childhood Classrooms: Big Ideas and Inspiration
- Kafai & Resnick - Constructionism in Practice
- Klein - Learning: Principles and Applications
- Marx - Learning: Processes
- Schunk - Learning Theories: An Educational Perspective
- Schwartz & Robbins - Psychology of Learning and Behavior
Foundational Theories and Concepts of Motivation Related to Early Childhood:
Attribution Theory (Originator - Weiner): A cognitive theory that considers a person’s beliefs about causes of outcomes (specifically success and failure) and how those beliefs influence future expectations and behavior. For example, the more one attributes their success/failure to external causes that they cannot control, the less motivated one is to participate and put forth effort into a task. The beliefs teachers hold about the role of ability and effort affect their responses to their students which, in turn, affect motivation.
Five reasons most frequently given as the cause for success and failure:
Mindset Theory (Originator - Dweck): Mindsets are beliefs about yourself and your most basic qualities. VIEW VIDEO TO LEARN MORE
*Builds upon Attribution Theory
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Extrinsic Motivation: Motivation to engage in an activity as a means to an end. Individuals who are intrinsically motivated work on tasks because they believe that participation will result in desirable outcomes such as a reward, teacher praise, or avoidance of punishment (Schunk, Pintrich, & Meece, 2008).
Intrinsic Motivation: Motivation to engage in an activity for its own sake. People who are intrinsically motivated work on tasks because they find them enjoyable. Task participation is its own reward and does not depend on explicit rewards or other external constraints (Schunk et al, 2008).
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Goal Orientation Theory: The purposes or reasons for engaging in behaviors. In older children this theory is often used to explain motivation for achievement in school.
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Self-Determination Theory (Originators - Deci & Ryan): A theory of motivation which suggests that people tend to be driven by a need to grow and gain fulfillment. The first assumption of self-determination theory is that people are activity directed toward growth. Gaining mastery over challenges and taking in new experiences are essential for developing a cohesive sense of self. According to self-determination theory, people need to feel the following in order to achieve such psychological growth:
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Self Efficacy Theory (Originator - Bandura): Self-efficacy is a person’s belief in his or her ability to succeed in a particular situation. Bandura described these beliefs as determinants of how people think, behave, and feel.
People with a strong sense of self-efficacy:
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Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs (Originator - Maslow): Maslow's hierarchy demonstrates the progression of basic needs that must be satisfied in order for higher needs to be met. In other words, the child’s basic needs for food and water must be met before we can expect him to learn in school or more importantly, build ideas about getting along with others. Higher needs cannot be satisfied until lower needs are satisfied – if two different needs were in conflict, the lower need would dominate. A need that is unsatisfied generates behavior that is designed to satisfy the need (reflecting its influence on motivation). Once the need is satisfied, there is homeostasis and the behavior is no longer required.
Five reasons most frequently given as the cause for success and failure:
- Ability - How we rate our aptitude, skill, or knowledge
- Effort - How hard we tried, including time spent
- Task difficulty - How difficult or easy we believe the task to be
- Strategy - The type of strategy used for learning
- Luck - The extent to which we believe luck was a factor
- Internal-External - Whether the cause is a factor within the person (ability, effort) or a factor outside the person (luck).
- Stable-Unstable - Whether the perceived cause has been consistent or inconsistent over time; unstable causes for success or failure are those attributed to temporary factors or factors that can be modified.
- Controllable-Uncontrollable - Extent we believe we have influence or control over the cause of an outcome.
Mindset Theory (Originator - Dweck): Mindsets are beliefs about yourself and your most basic qualities. VIEW VIDEO TO LEARN MORE
*Builds upon Attribution Theory
- Fixed Mindset - Beliefs that basic qualities, like intelligence or talent, are simply fixed traits - talent/intelligence alone creates success. Time spent documenting intelligence and talents rather than developing them.
- Growth Mindset - Beliefs that most basic abilities can be developed through dedication and hard work.Time spent developing skills and talents through a process of life long learning.
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Extrinsic Motivation: Motivation to engage in an activity as a means to an end. Individuals who are intrinsically motivated work on tasks because they believe that participation will result in desirable outcomes such as a reward, teacher praise, or avoidance of punishment (Schunk, Pintrich, & Meece, 2008).
Intrinsic Motivation: Motivation to engage in an activity for its own sake. People who are intrinsically motivated work on tasks because they find them enjoyable. Task participation is its own reward and does not depend on explicit rewards or other external constraints (Schunk et al, 2008).
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Goal Orientation Theory: The purposes or reasons for engaging in behaviors. In older children this theory is often used to explain motivation for achievement in school.
- Mastery Orientation (Mastery Motivation) -¨A focus on learning, mastering the task according to self-set standards or self improvement, developing new skills, improving or developing competence, trying to accomplish something challenging, and trying to gain understanding or insight.
- Performance Goal Orientation - Represents a focus on demonstrating competence or ability and how ability will be judged relative to others; for example, trying to surpass normative performance standards, attempting to best others, using social comparative standards, striving to be the best in the group or class on a task, avoiding judgments of low ability or appearing stupid, and seeking public recognition of high performance levels.
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Self-Determination Theory (Originators - Deci & Ryan): A theory of motivation which suggests that people tend to be driven by a need to grow and gain fulfillment. The first assumption of self-determination theory is that people are activity directed toward growth. Gaining mastery over challenges and taking in new experiences are essential for developing a cohesive sense of self. According to self-determination theory, people need to feel the following in order to achieve such psychological growth:
- Competence - People need to gain mastery of tasks and learn different skills.
- Relatedness - People need to experience a sense of belonging and attachment to other people.
- Autonomy - People need to feel in control of their own behaviors and goals.
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Self Efficacy Theory (Originator - Bandura): Self-efficacy is a person’s belief in his or her ability to succeed in a particular situation. Bandura described these beliefs as determinants of how people think, behave, and feel.
People with a strong sense of self-efficacy:
- View challenging problems as tasks to be mastered
- Develop deeper interest in the activities in which they participate
- Form a stronger sense of commitment to their interests and activities
- Recover quickly from setbacks and disappointments
- Avoid challenging tasks
- Believe that difficult tasks and situations are beyond their capabilities
- Focus on personal failings and negative outcomes
- Quickly lose confidence in personal abilities
- Mastery Experiences - "The most effective way of developing a strong sense of efficacy is through mastery experiences," Bandura explained. Performing a task successfully strengthens our sense of self-efficacy. However, failing to adequately deal with a task or challenge can undermine and weaken self-efficacy.
- Social Modeling - Witnessing other people successfully completing a task is another important source of self-efficacy. According to Bandura, "Seeing people similar to oneself succeed by sustained effort raises observers' beliefs that they too possess the capabilities master comparable activities to succeed."
- Social Persuasion - Bandura also asserted that people could be persuaded to believe that they have the skills and capabilities to succeed. Consider a time when someone said something positive and encouraging that helped you achieve a goal. Getting verbal encouragement from others helps people overcome self-doubt and instead focus on giving their best effort to the task at hand.
- Psychological Responses - Our own responses and emotional reactions to situations also play an important role in self-efficacy. Moods, emotional states, physical reactions, and stress levels can all impact how a person feels about their personal abilities in a particular situation. A person who becomes extremely nervous before speaking in public may develop a weak sense of self-efficacy in these situations. However, Bandura also notes "it is not the sheer intensity of emotional and physical reactions that is important but rather how they are perceived and interpreted." By learning how to minimize stress and elevate mood when facing difficult or challenging tasks, people can improve their sense of self-efficacy.
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Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs (Originator - Maslow): Maslow's hierarchy demonstrates the progression of basic needs that must be satisfied in order for higher needs to be met. In other words, the child’s basic needs for food and water must be met before we can expect him to learn in school or more importantly, build ideas about getting along with others. Higher needs cannot be satisfied until lower needs are satisfied – if two different needs were in conflict, the lower need would dominate. A need that is unsatisfied generates behavior that is designed to satisfy the need (reflecting its influence on motivation). Once the need is satisfied, there is homeostasis and the behavior is no longer required.
Other links to related resources about Theories of Motivation:
Click on any of the options below to access more information...
Recommended Books for Theories of Motivation in the Teacher Resource Library:
Section - Educational Approaches:
**Any of the book located in this section will provide information on most, if not all of the theories/ideas/concepts mentioned above.
Section - Educational Approaches:
- Hyson - Enthusiastic and Engaged Learners: Approaches to Learning in the Early Childhood Classroom
**Any of the book located in this section will provide information on most, if not all of the theories/ideas/concepts mentioned above.
Foundational Theories and Ideas of Perspective-Taking:
*These theories address intellectual perspective taking (as opposed to affective perspective taking or empathy) that requires intellectual ability and thus is located here in the Cognitive Development section of the website. While located here, intellectual perspective taking is essential for social competence and a critical component of Social and Emotional Development.
Selman's Stages of Perspective Taking (also referred to as "Role Taking"): These stages were developed by Robert Selman to explain children's growing ability to understand and explain other people's feelings and perspectives.
READ MORE ABOUT SELMAN'S STAGES OF PERSPECTIVE/ROLE TAKING
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Selman's Stages of Perspective Taking (also referred to as "Role Taking"): These stages were developed by Robert Selman to explain children's growing ability to understand and explain other people's feelings and perspectives.
READ MORE ABOUT SELMAN'S STAGES OF PERSPECTIVE/ROLE TAKING
- Level 0 Egocentric Viewpoint (or undifferentiated) (Ages 3-6) - Children recognize that the self and others can have different thoughts and feelings, but they frequently confuse the two.
- Level 1 Social Informational Perspective Taking (Ages 6-8) - Children understand that different perspectives may result because people have access to different information.
- Level 2 Self Reflective Perspective Taking (Ages 8-10) - Children can "step in another person's shoes" and view their own thoughts, feelings, and behavior from the other person's perspective. They also recognize that others can do the same.
- Level 3 Third Party Perspective Taking (Ages 10-12) - Children can step outside a two-person situation and imagine how the self and other are viewed from the point of view of a third, impartial party.
- Level 4 Societal Perspective Taking (Ages 12-15 Onwards) - Individuals understand that third-party perspective-taking can be influenced by one or more systems of larger societal values.
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Theory of Mind: Involves the ability to understand others as intentional agents and to interpret their minds in terms of intentional states such as beliefs and desires; to understand that mental states can be the cause of – and thus be able to explain and predict – others’ behavior; and to understand that others’ actions are goal-directed and arise from particular beliefs or desires.
(Resource: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_mind) |
Other links to related resources about Perspective Taking:
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Theories, Concepts, and Ideas of Cognitive Development in Infants (cheat list):
**If you are interested in theories of Cognitive Development related to infants you are encouraged to still spend time with the theories above. While they may not directly address infants they still have an influence on infant learning and development.
Joint Attention: The shared focus of two individuals on an object. It is achieved when one individual alerts another to an object by means of eye-gazing, pointing or other verbal or non-verbal indications. An individual gazes at another individual, points to an object and then returns their gaze to the individual.
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Object Permanence (Piaget): The recognition that an object continues to exist even when it is temporarily out of sight (Bee, 2000).
Sensorimotor Stage of Development (0-2 years) (Piaget): During Piaget's first stage of development the infant assimilates incoming information to the limited array of sensory and motor schemas she is born with - such as looking, listening, sucking, grasping - and accommodates those schemas based on her experiences (Bee, 2000). The infant exhibits a wholly practical, perceiving-and-doing, action-bound kind of intellectual functioning; she does not exhibit the more contemplative, reflective, symbol-manipulating kind we usually think of in connection with cognition.The infant "knows" in the sense of recognizing or anticipating familiar, recurring objects and happenings, and "thinks" in the sense of behaving toward them with mouth, hand, eye, and other sensory motor instruments in predictable, organized, and often adaptive ways (Flavell, 1985).
Substages of Sensorimotor Stage of Development:
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Theory of Mind (Baron-Cohen & Meltzoff): Baron-Cohen identified the infant's understanding of attention in others, a social skill found by 7 to 9 months of age, as a "critical precursor" to the development of theory of mind. Understanding attention involves understanding that seeing can be directed selectively as attention, that the looker assesses the seen object as "of interest", and that seeing can induce beliefs. Attention can be directed and shared by the act of pointing, a joint attention behavior that requires taking into account another person's mental state, particularly whether the person notices an object or finds it of interest.(Resource: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_mind)
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Object Permanence (Piaget): The recognition that an object continues to exist even when it is temporarily out of sight (Bee, 2000).
Sensorimotor Stage of Development (0-2 years) (Piaget): During Piaget's first stage of development the infant assimilates incoming information to the limited array of sensory and motor schemas she is born with - such as looking, listening, sucking, grasping - and accommodates those schemas based on her experiences (Bee, 2000). The infant exhibits a wholly practical, perceiving-and-doing, action-bound kind of intellectual functioning; she does not exhibit the more contemplative, reflective, symbol-manipulating kind we usually think of in connection with cognition.The infant "knows" in the sense of recognizing or anticipating familiar, recurring objects and happenings, and "thinks" in the sense of behaving toward them with mouth, hand, eye, and other sensory motor instruments in predictable, organized, and often adaptive ways (Flavell, 1985).
Substages of Sensorimotor Stage of Development:
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Theory of Mind (Baron-Cohen & Meltzoff): Baron-Cohen identified the infant's understanding of attention in others, a social skill found by 7 to 9 months of age, as a "critical precursor" to the development of theory of mind. Understanding attention involves understanding that seeing can be directed selectively as attention, that the looker assesses the seen object as "of interest", and that seeing can induce beliefs. Attention can be directed and shared by the act of pointing, a joint attention behavior that requires taking into account another person's mental state, particularly whether the person notices an object or finds it of interest.(Resource: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_mind)
Resources related to Cognitive Development in Infants:
Click on any of the options below to access more information...
- 7-Month Old Babies Show Awareness of Others' Viewpoints - Video/Article
- Cognitive Development in Infancy and Toddlerhood - Book Chapter
- Deferred Imitation Across Changes in Object and Context: Memory and Generalization in 14-Month-Old Infants - Article
- Exploring Memory in Infancy: Deferred Imitation and the Development of Declarative Memory - Article
- Lower and Higher Mental Functions in Infants - Article
Recommended Books for Infant Cognitive Development in the Teacher Resource Library:
Section - Learning and Development:
**Any of the textbooks located in this section have information on most if not all of the theorists/theories/concepts/ideas from above)
Section - Learning and Development:
- Bee - The Developing Child
- Berk - Development Through the Lifespan
- Bukatko & Daehler - Child Development: A Topical Approach
- Gopnik, Meltzoff, & Kuhl - The Scientist in the Crib
- Gordon - Human Development
- Ormond - Human Learning
- Shonkoff & Phillips - From Neurons to Neighborhoods
- Wittmer, Petersen, & Puckett - The Young Child: Development from Prebirth Through Age Eight
**Any of the textbooks located in this section have information on most if not all of the theorists/theories/concepts/ideas from above)
Play and Cognitive Development:
Children gain knowledge through their play. They exercise their abilities to think, remember, and solve problems. They develop cognitively as they have a chance to test their beliefs about the world.
Children increase their problem-solving abilities through games and puzzles. Children involved in make-believe play can stimulate several types of learning. Language is strengthened as the children model others and organize their thoughts to communicate. Children playing house create elaborate narratives concerning their roles and the nature of daily living.
Children also increase their understanding of size, shape, and texture through play. They begin to understand relationships as they try to put a square object in a round opening or a large object in a small space. Books, videos, and educational toys that show pictures and matching words also increase a child's vocabulary while increasing the child's concept of the world.
(Resource: http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Play.aspx)
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Smilansky (Sarah) Four Stages of Play: Defines four characteristics of cognitive play, building upon Piaget's Stages of Development.
Children increase their problem-solving abilities through games and puzzles. Children involved in make-believe play can stimulate several types of learning. Language is strengthened as the children model others and organize their thoughts to communicate. Children playing house create elaborate narratives concerning their roles and the nature of daily living.
Children also increase their understanding of size, shape, and texture through play. They begin to understand relationships as they try to put a square object in a round opening or a large object in a small space. Books, videos, and educational toys that show pictures and matching words also increase a child's vocabulary while increasing the child's concept of the world.
(Resource: http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Play.aspx)
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Smilansky (Sarah) Four Stages of Play: Defines four characteristics of cognitive play, building upon Piaget's Stages of Development.
- Functional Play (also called practice play) - Repetitive muscle movements such as running, banging, or stacking.
- Constructive Play - Use of blocks or materials to make something.
- Dramatic or Symbolic Play - Use of imagination and role play.
- Games with Rules - Accepts predetermined rules to play games.
Links to related resources about Play & Cognitive Development:
Click on any of the options below to access more information...
Recommended Books for Play and Cognitive Development in the Teacher Resource Library:
Section - Educational Approaches:
Section - Educational Approaches:
- Bodrova & Leong - Tools of the Mind: The Vygotskian Approach to Early Childhood Education
- Elkind - The Power of Play: Learning What Comes Naturally
- Saracho & Spodek - Multiple Perspectives on Play in Early Childhood Education
- Johnson, Christie, & Wardle - Play, Development, and Early Education
- Nell & Drew - From Play to Practice
- Rogers & Sawyers - Play in the Lives of Children
Reference List for Works Cited on This Page:
- Alderman, K. (2007). Motivation for achievement: Possibilities for teaching and learning. (2nd ed.) New York: Routledge.
- Bee, H. (2000). The developing child (9th ed.). Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
- Berk, L. E. (1998). Development through the lifespan. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
- Bodrova, E., & Leong, D. J. (2007). Tools of the mind: The Vygotskian approach to early childhood education (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
- Bruner, J. (1960 ). The process of education. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
- Bukatko & Daehler, (2012). Child development: A thematic approach (6th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
- Flavell, J. H. (1985). Cognitive development (2nd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
- Gardner, H. (1991). The unschooled mind. New York: Basic Books.
- Mcleod, S. A. (2008). Bruner. Simply Psychology. Retrieved January 20, 2012, from http://www.simplypsychology.org/bruner.html
- Schunk, D. H. (2004). Learning theories: An educational perspective (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
- Schunk, D. H., Pintrich, P. R., & Meece, J. L. (2008). Motivation in education: Theory, research, and applications (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle Rive, NJ: Pearson.
- Sutherland, K. S., & Morgan, P. L. (2003). Implications of transactional processes in classrooms for students with emotional/behavioral disorders. Preventing School Failure, 48(1), 32-37.
- Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
- Wadsworth, B. J. (1996). Piaget's theory of cognitive and affective development: Foundations of constructivism (5th ed.). White Plains, NY: Longman.
- Wittmer, D. S., Petersen, S. H., & Puckett, M. B. (2013). The young child: Development from prebirth through age eight (6th ed.). Upper Saddle Rive, NJ: Pearson.