Your relationships with children are your strongest asset. How you respond to them will help them decide if they will connect to school as a place of success and belonging, or if they will disconnect because of challenges and difficulties. Your examples of kindness, respect, caring, and consistency set the tone for them. Interactions with adults have the power to change the way a child feels about himself and others, and to affect the way he interprets experiences. - Katz, Guiding Children's Social and Emotional Development
What is Social & Emotional Development?
The term social emotional development refers to the developing capacity of the child from birth through five years of age to form close and secure adult and peer relationships; experience, regulate, and express emotions in socially and culturally appropriate ways; and explore the environment and learn – all in the context of family, community, and culture. Adapted from ZERO to THREE’s definition of Infant Mental Health 2001
Examples of questions related to Social & Emotional Development:
- What is it that draws a child to a certain adult?
- Why do some children have a harder time separating from their parents?
- Why do some children yell or scream at their peers and others seem much more accepting of their peers?
- Why do children bite ?
- Does a child develop empathy or is it learned?
- Do infants have friends?
- How do children decide who their friends are? What is attractive to a child and does that stay the same throughout childhood?
- Is there a typical age when children begin to engage in more social play than individual play?
- How can we assist in the potty training process without discouraging or making the child feel like they are not in control of their body?
- When do children start reading body language?
- How do children process emotions?
- How does taking risks affect a child’s emotional development?
Overview of the Social and Emotional Development webpage:
The purpose of this page is to offer a starting point for making connections to your observations of your child study (and children in general). Once you have encountered a particular theory/idea/contributor/resource that you connect with you are required to conduct further research beyond this website for additional information and a deeper understanding of the ideas/people presented here. Important to mention, the information mentioned here under Social and Emotional Development also has an impact on Cognitive Development as well as Physical Development. These ideas/theories/concepts/contributors are mentioned here in the Social and Emotional Development section of the website because the literature base most commonly refers to them in the realm of Social and Emotional Development. Below offers a brief outline of the sections located on this page - for the most part names and theories are alphabetized and sometimes grouped together based on their shared meanings:
Anything in blue with ** below you can click on and you will automatically be brought to that section of the page.
**Foundational Contributors to Theories and Concepts of Social & Emotional Development:
**Bowlby (John) - Attachment Theory
**Erikson (Erik) - Psychosocial Stages of Development
**Goleman (Daniel) - Emotional Intelligence
**Foundational Contributors to Theories and Concepts of Moral Development:
**Damon (William) - Stages of Fairness and Social Justice
**Eisenberg (Nancy) - Model of Moral Development
**Gilligan (Carol) - Stages of Ethics of Care
**Kohlberg (Lawrence) - Stages of Moral Reasoning
**Piaget (Jean) - Immanent Justice, Objective Responsibility, Heteronomous Morality, Autonomous Morality
**Turiel (Elliot) - Domain Theory
**Theories and Ideas on Friendship in Early Childhood
Damon (William) - Stages of Friendship
Selman (Robert) - Stages of Friendship
**Stages and Categories of Play:
Howes (Carollee) - Stages of Play, Social Play, Social Pretend Play
Parten (Mildred) - Categories of Social Participation and Play
Winter (W.M.) - Stages of Play
Play & Emotional Development
Play & Moral Development
Play & Social Development
**Links to related resources on Social & Emotional Development in Infants
**Additional Terms/Concepts Related to Social & Emotional Development
Delayed (Deferred) Gratification
Empathy
Impulse Control
Other Regulation
Prosocial Learning/Behaviors
Self Regulation
Temperament
Transistional Object
Anything in blue with ** below you can click on and you will automatically be brought to that section of the page.
**Foundational Contributors to Theories and Concepts of Social & Emotional Development:
**Bowlby (John) - Attachment Theory
**Erikson (Erik) - Psychosocial Stages of Development
**Goleman (Daniel) - Emotional Intelligence
**Foundational Contributors to Theories and Concepts of Moral Development:
**Damon (William) - Stages of Fairness and Social Justice
**Eisenberg (Nancy) - Model of Moral Development
**Gilligan (Carol) - Stages of Ethics of Care
**Kohlberg (Lawrence) - Stages of Moral Reasoning
**Piaget (Jean) - Immanent Justice, Objective Responsibility, Heteronomous Morality, Autonomous Morality
**Turiel (Elliot) - Domain Theory
**Theories and Ideas on Friendship in Early Childhood
Damon (William) - Stages of Friendship
Selman (Robert) - Stages of Friendship
**Stages and Categories of Play:
Howes (Carollee) - Stages of Play, Social Play, Social Pretend Play
Parten (Mildred) - Categories of Social Participation and Play
Winter (W.M.) - Stages of Play
Play & Emotional Development
Play & Moral Development
Play & Social Development
**Links to related resources on Social & Emotional Development in Infants
**Additional Terms/Concepts Related to Social & Emotional Development
Delayed (Deferred) Gratification
Empathy
Impulse Control
Other Regulation
Prosocial Learning/Behaviors
Self Regulation
Temperament
Transistional Object
Foundational Contributors to Theories and Concepts of Social & Emotional Development:
Bowlby (John) (1907-1990) British Psychologist, Psychiatrist, & Psychoanalyst
Learn more about Bowlby and an overview of his theories/contributions to child development
Attachment Theory: A strong emotional relationship between two people, characterized by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximity. Studies of attachment highlight the critical need to form attachments to several significant adults, not just the mother, during the early months and years and suggest that failure to do so may have a lifelong effect on healthy social and emotional development (Wittmer, Petersen, & Puckett, 2013). For example, children who are securely attached as infants tend to develop stronger self-esteem and better self-reliance as they grow older. These children also tend to be more independent, perform better in school, have successful social relationships, and experience less depression and anxiety.(Resource: http://psychology.about.com/od/loveandattraction/a/attachment01.htm)
Characteristics of Attachment
Patterns of Attachment
Attachment Theory: A strong emotional relationship between two people, characterized by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximity. Studies of attachment highlight the critical need to form attachments to several significant adults, not just the mother, during the early months and years and suggest that failure to do so may have a lifelong effect on healthy social and emotional development (Wittmer, Petersen, & Puckett, 2013). For example, children who are securely attached as infants tend to develop stronger self-esteem and better self-reliance as they grow older. These children also tend to be more independent, perform better in school, have successful social relationships, and experience less depression and anxiety.(Resource: http://psychology.about.com/od/loveandattraction/a/attachment01.htm)
Characteristics of Attachment
- Proximity Maintenance - The desire to be near the people we are attached to.
- Safe Haven - Returning to the attachment figure for comfort and safety in the face of a fear or threat.
- Secure Base - The attachment figure acts as a base of security from which the child can explore the surrounding environment.
- Separation Distress - Anxiety that occurs in the absence of the attachment figure.
Patterns of Attachment
- Secure Attachment - Children who are securely attached generally become visibly upset when their caregivers leave, and are happy when their parents return. When frightened, these children will seek comfort from the parent or caregiver.
- Ambivalent Attachment - Children who are ambivalently attached tend to be extremely suspicious of strangers. These children display considerable distress when separated from a parent or caregiver, but do not seem reassured or comforted by the return of the parent.
- Avoidant Attachment - Children with avoidant attachment styles tend to avoid parents and caregivers. This avoidance often becomes especially pronounced after a period of absence. These children might not reject attention from a parent, but neither do they seek our comfort or contact. Children with an avoidant attachment show no preference between a parent and a complete stranger.
- Disoragnized Attachment - Children with a disorganized-insecure attachment style show a lack of clear attachment behavior. Their actions and responses to caregivers are often a mix of behaviors, including avoidance or resistance. These children are described as displaying dazed behavior, sometimes seeming either confused or apprehensive in the presence of a caregiver.
- Pre-attachment Stage - From birth to three months, infants do not show any particular attachment to a specific caregiver. The infant's signals such as crying and fussing naturally attract the attention of the caregiver, and the baby's positive responses encourage the caregiver to remain close.
- Indiscriminate Attachment - From around six weeks of age to seven months, infants begin to show preferences for primary and secondary caregivers. During this phase, infants begin to develop a feeling of trust that the caregiver will respond to their needs. While they will still accept care from other people, they become much better at distinguishing between familiar and unfamiliar people as they approach seven months of age. They also respond more positively to the primary caregiver.
- Discriminate Attachment - At this point, from about seven to eleven months of age, infants show a strong attachment and preference for one specific individual. They will protest when separated from the primary attachment figure (separation anxiety), and begin to display anxiety around strangers (stranger anxiety).
- Multiple Attachments - After approximately nine months of age, children begin to form strong emotional bonds with other caregivers beyond the primary attachment figure. This often includes the father, older siblings, and grandparents.
Other related links to resources about Bowlby:
Click on any of the options below to access more information...
Recommended Books for Attachment in the Teacher Resource Library:
Section - Educational Approaches:
Section - Educational Approaches:
- Raikes & Edwards - Extending the Dance in Infant and Toddler Caregiving: Enhancing Attachment and Relationships
__________________________
Erikson (Erik) (1902-1944) American Developmental Psychologist and Psychoanalyst
Learn more about Erikson and an overview of his theories/contributions to child development
Psychosocial Stages of Development: These stages are influenced by common cultural demands for the person at each particular age in life (i.e., the demand that the child become toilet trained). Each child moves through a fixed sequence of tasks or dilemmas , each centered on the development of a particular facet of identity. The critical point is that the degree of success a child experiences in meeting the demands of these various stages and will depend very heavily on the interactions he has with people and objects in his world (Bee, 2000). Each stage is characterized by a different psychological "crisis" which must be resolved by the individual before the individual can move onto the next stage - if the person copes with the crisis in a maladaptive manner, the outcome will be more struggles with that issue later on in life (Resource Unknown). While his stages span the human lifespan, the chart below focuses on the first four stages related to early childhood .
CLICK HERE TO SEE A FULL CHART OF ALL STAGES
Other related links to resources about Erikson's Psychosocial Development:
Click on any of the options below to access more information...
Recommended Books for Erikson in the Teacher Resource Library:
Section - Community and Culture:
Section - Community and Culture:
- Erikson, Childhood and Society
- Erikson, Adulthood
____________________________
Goleman (Daniel) (1946- ) Psychologist
Learn more about Goleman and an overview of his theories/contributions
Emotional Intelligence: Emotional intelligence is the ability to monitor one's own and other people's emotions, to discriminate between different emotions and label them appropriately, and to use emotional information to guide thinking and behavior. (Resource: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotional_intelligence)
Other related links to resources about Goleman's Theory of Emotional Intelligence:
Click on any of the options below to access more information...
Recommended Books for Goleman in the Teacher Resource Library:
Section - Learning and Development:
Section - Learning and Development:
- Goleman, Emotional Intelligence
Recommended Books for overall Theories and Concepts of Social & Emotional Development from the Teacher Resource Library:
Section - Educational Approaches:
Section - Educational Approaches:
- Katz & McClellan - Fostering Children's Social Competence: The Teacher's Role
- Roopnarine & Johnson - Approaches to Early Childhood Education
- Wittmer & Petersen - Infant and Toddler Development and Responsive Program Planning: A Relationship-Based Approach
- Bee - The Developing Child
- Berk - Development Through the Lifespan
- Bukatko & Daehler - Child Development: A Topical Approach
- Gordon - Human Development
- Kagan - The Nature of the Child
- Ormond - Human Learning
- Slavin - Cooperative Learning: Theory, Research, and Practice
- Wittmer, Petersen, & Puckett - The Young Child: Development from Prebirth Through Age Eight
- Riley, San Juan, Klinkner, & Ramminger - Social and Emotional Development
- Wittmer - Focusing on Peers: The Importance of Relationships in the Early Years
Foundational Contributors to Theories and Concepts of Moral Development:
Damon (William) Professor of Education Stanford Graduate School of Education
Learn more about Damon and an overview of his theories/contributions to child development
Stages of Fairness & Social Justice:
Learn more about Damon and an overview of his theories/contributions to child development
Stages of Fairness & Social Justice:
- Level 0-A (Age 4 & Under) - Confuse fairness with desire - “I should have it because I want it.”
- Level 0-B (Ages 4 to 5) - Confuses fairness with personal characteristics - “I should get it because I am the oldest.”
- Level 1-A (Ages 5 to 7) - Confuse fairness with strict equality - “Everyone should get the same.”
- Level 1-B (Ages 6 to 9) - Confuses fairness with deserving - “She should get the most because she worked the hardest.”
- Level 2-A (Ages 8 to 10) - Confuses fairness with compromise - “He should get the most because he is poor, but she should get some too.”
- Level 2-B (Ages 10 & Up) - Confuses fairness with a situational ethic.
Recommended Books for Damon in the Teacher Resource Library:
Section - Learning and Development:
Section - Learning and Development:
- Damon, The Moral Child
_______________________
Eisenberg (Nancy) Regent's Professor Arizona State University
Learn more about Eisenberg and an overview of her theories/contributions to child development
Model of Moral Development: Eisenberg suggests that Kohlberg's model is too rigid; she suggests that children's moral reasoning is not very predictable because children can reason from several different levels rather than using one level and only being able to advance. In Eisenberg's model, the higher levels are found only in older children, but children can use any of the levels for which they are capable. A child who can use high-level abstract reasoning doesn't have to use it.
- Self-Centered Reasoning - At this level the individual is concerned with consequences to oneself. One may choose to assist or not assist because of (a) personal benefit or loss; (b) the expectation of reciprocity; (c) one needs the other, or likes or dislikes the other. This level is frequently used by preschoolers and early elementary-school children.
- Needs-Oriented Reasoning - Concern for the needs is expressed, without role-taking or empathy, even though there may be a conflict with one's own needs. Some preschoolers and many school-age children use this mode of reasoning.
- Stereotyped and/or Approval-Oriented Reasoning - This level involves stereotyped ideas of good/bad people and good/bad behavior and the desire to win approval. This level is used by some school-aged children and adolescents.
- Empathetic Reasoning - The individual can use some role-taking, empathy, and recognition of the other's humanness. There is awareness of the emotional consequences of helping (feeling good) or not helping (feeling guilty). This is the common level for a few older school-age children and many adolescents.
- Partly Internalized Principles - Justifications for actions involve internalized values (e.g., concern for others' rights). The ideas are not clearly thought out or strongly stated. This is the common mode for a few adolescents and adults.
- Strongly Internalized Principles - Justifications for actions are based on strongly-felt internalized values (e.g., wanting to improve society, belief in equality of all). Emotional consequences involve self-respect and living up to one's own values. This form of reasoning is rare.
_______________________
Gilligan (Carol) (1936- ) Feminist & Psychologist
Learn more about Gilligan and an overview of her theories/contributions to child development
Gilligan felt as though Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development did not adequately address the gender differences of moral development due to the fact that participants in Kohlberg's study were predominately male and because his theory did not include the caring perspective. In her own research, Gilligan found that women placed a stronger emphasis on caring in moral decision making. Kohlberg's theory emphasizing justice does not allow for the role of caring in moral decision making, and this is why women often fail to reach Kohlberg's “higher” stages of moral reasoning. Gilligan proposed the Stages of the Ethics of Care Theory, which addresses what makes actions 'right' or 'wrong'. Gilligan's theory focused on both care-based morality and justice-based morality.
Stages of the Ethics of Care
Care-based morality
Stages of the Ethics of Care
Care-based morality
- Emphasizes interconnectedness and universality.
- Acting justly means avoiding violence and helping those in need.
- Care-based morality is thought to be more common in girls because of their connections to their mothers.
- Because girls remain connected to their mothers, they are less inclined to worry about issues of fairness.
- Views the world as being composed of autonomous individuals who interact with another.
- Acting justly means avoiding inequality.
- Is thought to be more common in boys because of their need to differentiate between themselves and their mothers.
- Because they are separated from their mothers, boys become more concerned with the concept of inequality.
Other related links to resources about Gilligan's Ideas on Moral Development:
Click on any of the options below to access more information...
Recommended Books for Gilligan in the Teacher Resource Library:
Section - Learning and Development:
Section - Learning and Development:
- Gilligan, Ward, Taylor, & Bardige, Mapping the Moral Dillemma
_______________________
Kohlberg (Lawrence) (1927-1987) American Psychologist
Learn more about Kohlberg and an overview of his theories/contributions to child development
Stages of Moral Reasoning
*Important to mention that Kohlberg's theory helps explain one's reason why s/he did something rather than explaining the morality of the behavior itself.
Level 1 – Pre Conventional Level – follow unvarying rules; rewards and punishment
*Important to mention that Kohlberg's theory helps explain one's reason why s/he did something rather than explaining the morality of the behavior itself.
Level 1 – Pre Conventional Level – follow unvarying rules; rewards and punishment
- Stage 1 – Punishment and Obedience Orientation
- Stage 2 – Instrumental Relativist Orientation
- Stage 3 - Good Girl/Bad Girl Orientation
- Stage 4 – Law and Order Orientation
- Stage 5 – Social Contract Legalistic Orientation
- Stage 6 – Universal Ethical Principle Orientation
Other related links to resources about Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Reasoning:
Click on any of the options below to access more information...
_______________________
Piaget (Jean) (1896-1980) Swiss Psychologist
Learn more about Piaget and his theories/contributions to Moral Development
Immanent Justice: Moral rules are unchanging aspects of the world we live in, with inevitable and unavoidable consequences.
Objective Responsibility: Consequences of an act are placed above intentions of the act. Example - a child who accidentally knocks over a carton of milk and spills it is more at fault than a child who steals one cookie from a cookie jar.
_______
Pre Moral: Before age 4
Heteronomous Morality (Ages 4 to 7): Rules are seen as invariant, unchangeable, and beyond the child’s control and/or influence. Intentions are not considered. Beliefs that there should be an immediate punishment for infractions.
Autonomous Morality (Begins at 10 years): Rules can and may be modified if people playing agree.
_______
Two Social Worlds of the Child:
Adult-Child Relations
Objective Responsibility: Consequences of an act are placed above intentions of the act. Example - a child who accidentally knocks over a carton of milk and spills it is more at fault than a child who steals one cookie from a cookie jar.
_______
Pre Moral: Before age 4
Heteronomous Morality (Ages 4 to 7): Rules are seen as invariant, unchangeable, and beyond the child’s control and/or influence. Intentions are not considered. Beliefs that there should be an immediate punishment for infractions.
Autonomous Morality (Begins at 10 years): Rules can and may be modified if people playing agree.
_______
Two Social Worlds of the Child:
Adult-Child Relations
- Foster the necessary function of transmitting respect for the social order and knowledge of important social conventions
- Adult-child outcomes include knowledge of the social order, prescribed social rules, and the moral rationales behind them
- Adult-child processes expose the child to relations of authority
- Foster development of moral reciprocity, kindness, cooperation, and a sense of justice
- Peer relation outcomes include equality, cooperation, kindness, and fairness
- Peer-relation processes expose the child to interactional procedures such as direct reciprocity and consensual negotiation
Other related links to resources on Piaget's Theories of Moral Development:
Click on any of the options below to access more information...
Recommended Books for Moral Development in the Teacher Resource Library:
Section - Learning and Development:
Section - Learning and Development:
- Piaget - The Moral Judgment of the Child
____________________________
Turiel (Elliot) American Psychologist
Learn more about Turiell and an overview of his theories/contributions to moral development
Domain Theory:
Three basic social domains
Three basic social domains
- Moral - Issues of harm and fairness to others. Most people will agree that it is unacceptable to go up and strike someone or to destroy something that doesn't belong to them, because the result and consequence of these actions is wrong irrespective of whether there is a rule about them or not. Children's morality is founded on their perception of fairness and other's welfare.
- Conventional - Arbitrary uniformities agreed to promote order. All social groups have rules or routines to facilitate social interactions' predictability and to facilitate the smooth operation of the group. Unlike moral rules the conventions of a house or classroom setting must always be taught. Children assimilate these best by seeing them applied or hearing them frequently. Children may or may not be consulted about such practices but research suggests that for some particular routines children's comprehension and ownership of them is correlated to the discussion and inclusion in the decision making process. Children cannot come to know conventional expectations/ demands without some level of introduction which can come in the form of careful observation or through instruction. All children, in particular very young children, benefit from and appreciate conventional rules which afford consistency and stability. Children feel more secure and thrive in an orderly environment.
- Personal - Individual prerogative negotiated rather than defined by conventional or moral restrictions. This incorporates privacy, ideas and their expression, ownership and control over one's bodily state or activities. Children from a very young age start to have an idea about what should be up to them and what should be managed or decided by others. Personal needs and desires often conflict with those of others and is an area which demands more control and explanation. Children try to negotiate with others over things they think they should be entitled to e.g. decide I want to wear ______ every day can be compromised on by adults with an explanation that they may wear _______ everyday as long as there is _____ clean to wear or that it is acceptable to wear for where they will be going.
Other related links to general resources on Moral Development:
Click on any of the options below to access more information...
- Born Good? Babies Help Unlock the Origins of Morality - Video
- Domain Based Moral Education - Website
- Juxtaposition of Relevant Developmental Theories - Chart
- Moral Stage Theory - Article
- Piaget, Kohlberg, Gilligan, and Others on Moral Development - Book Chapter
- The Moral Life of Babies - Article
- The Stages of Moral Reasoning: Preschool to Adulthood - Article/Chart
Recommended Books for Moral Development in the Teacher Resource Library:
Section - Educational Approaches:
Section - Educational Approaches:
- Reimer, Paolitto, & Hersh - Promoting Moral Growth
- Coles - The Moral Life of Children
- Coles - The Spiritual Life of Children
- Lickona - Moral Development and Behavior: Theory, Research, and Social Issues
Theories and Ideas on Friendship in Early Childhood
Damon (William) Stages of Friendship:
- Level 1 (4–7 years) Friendship as a handy playmate - Friendship is based on physical or geographical considerations and is rather self-centered. A friend is a playmate who lives nearby and has “neat” toys. There is little or no understanding of the other person’s perspective or personality traits.
- Level 2 (8–10 years) Friendship as mutual trust and assistance - Children begin to understand reciprocity and develop an awareness of the other child’s feelings. In the preadolescent stage, children have friendships based on a pattern of give and take. Friends are now seen as people who help each other. At this stage, children realize they can evaluate their friend’s behavior and that their behavior can conversely be evaluated. Trust, a benchmark of mature friendships, appears for the first time. In the latter part of this stage, rifts between friends are not as easily “patched up” as in early childhood. Instead apologies and explanations are necessary.
- Level 3 (11–15 years +) Friendship as intimacy and loyalty - Friendship patterns are based upon sharing activities such as playing ball, riding bikes, or using computers. During adolescence, friendships assume a more crucial significance and are multifaceted. As adolescents become more independent of their families, they depend increasingly upon friendships to provide emotional support.Friendships now become the testing grounds for new values and behaviors. Close friends help the adolescent work out his or her identity. In order to accept this identity formation, the adolescent must feel accepted and liked by others. Additionally, the “status” of friends during adolescence provides a sense of reflective – self-esteem. Being in the “popular” groups in adolescence elevates self-esteem into young adult life. Friendships at this age provide many needed developmental structures beneficial to psychological health and competence. This includes opportunities to explore the self and develop a deeper understanding of another, provide support dealing with the stresses of everyday life, and improve attitudes toward and involvement in school.
________
Selman (Robert) Stages of Friendship: Selman originally proposed that later levels replace earlier ways of thinking, but it's probably more accurate to say that the more mature levels expand upon earlier perspectives, adding new and deeper layers of understanding. As adults, we value deeply intimate, on-going relationships, but we also like to have fun with our friends, and we appreciate it if they do nice things for us. We also have different kinds of relationships, including both close and casual friends.
Selman (Robert) Stages of Friendship: Selman originally proposed that later levels replace earlier ways of thinking, but it's probably more accurate to say that the more mature levels expand upon earlier perspectives, adding new and deeper layers of understanding. As adults, we value deeply intimate, on-going relationships, but we also like to have fun with our friends, and we appreciate it if they do nice things for us. We also have different kinds of relationships, including both close and casual friends.
- LEVEL 0 Friendship—Momentary Playmates "I Want It My Way" (Approximate ages: 3-6 years) - Children at this stage view friends as momentary playmates, and their friendships are all about having fun together. Their friends are kids who are conveniently nearby, and who do the same things they like to do. Children at this stage have very limited ability to see other perspectives. They assume that other children think the same way they do, so they tend to get very upset when they find out that a playmate has a different opinion.
- LEVEL 1 Friendship—One-Way Assistance "What's In It For Me?" (Approximate ages: 5-9 years) - At this level, children understand that friendship goes beyond whatever their current activity is, but they still think in very pragmatic terms. They define friends as children who do nice things for them—such as sharing a treat, saving them a seat on the bus, or giving them nice presents—but they don't really think about what they themselves contribute to the friendship. Children at this level care a lot about friendship. They may even put up with a not-so-nice friend, just so they can have a friend. They also may try to use friendship as a bargaining chip, saying things like "I'll be your friend if you do this!" or "I won't be your friend if you do that!"
- LEVEL 2 Friendship—Two-Way, Fair Weather Cooperation "By the Rules" (Approximate ages: 7-12 years) - Six- to twelve-year-old children are able to consider a friend's perspective in addition to their own, but not at the same time. So what this means is that they understand turn taking, but they can't really step back and get an observer's perspective that would allow them to see patterns of interaction in their relationships. At this stage, children are very concerned about fairness and reciprocity, but they think about these in a very rigid, quid pro quo way. So, if they do something nice for a friend, they expect that friend to do something nice for them at the next opportunity. If this doesn't happen, the friendship is likely to fall apart.
- LEVEL 3 Friendship—Intimate, Mutually Shared Relationships "Caring and Sharing" (Approximate ages: 8-15 years) - At this stage, friends help each other solve problems and confide thoughts and feelings that they don't share with anyone else. They know how to compromise, and they do kind things for each other without "keeping score," because they genuinely care about each other's happiness. For some children, this is also the "Joined at the Hip" stage. Girls, more often than boys, may be best friends and expect each other to do everything together. They feel deeply betrayed if a best friend chooses to be with another child.
- LEVEL 4 Friendship—Mature Friendship "Friends Through Thick and Thin" (Approximate ages: 12 years and up) - At this stage, children place a high value on emotional closeness with friends. They can accept and even appreciate differences between themselves and their friends. They're also not as possessive, so they're less likely to feel threatened if their friends have other relationships. Mature friendship emphasizes trust and support and remaining close over time, despite separations.
Other related links to resources on Friendships in Early Childhood:
Click on any of the options below to access more information...
Stages and Categories of Play:
*While featured here in the Social and Emotional Development section of the website, it is important to mention that play also has an equal impact on a child's Cognitive Development and Physical Development.
Howes (Carollee): Carollee Howes is a Research Professor of Education and Director of the Center for Improving Child Care Quality at University of California Los Angeles (UCLA).
Lean more about Carollee Howes
Social Play and Social Pretend Play:
READ MORE ABOUT THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SOCIAL PLAY AND SOCIAL PRETEND PLAY
_______
Parten (Mildred) Categories of Social Participation/Play: Parten was one of the first to study social play in young children. In 1932, she published her research in the Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology. Parten found that with increasing age, the children tended to participate in more social forms of play. Younger children tended to engage in more unoccupied behavior, onlooker behavior, and solitary play, while older preschoolers engaged in more cooperative play. (Resource: http://www.beststart.org/OnTrack_English/pdf/OnTrack-Section4.pdf)
Passive Play
Lean more about Carollee Howes
- Parallel Play - Children engage in similar activities but do not pay any attention to one another.
- Mutual Regard - The child has an awareness of others but shows no verbalization or other social behaviors. The child only engages in a social act in similar or identical activities by making eye contact.
- Simple Social Exchange - The child engages in similar activities along with other social behaviors such as talking, smiling, offering toys to peers.
- Complementary Play - The child shares common fantasy themes or engages in joint activities with a common goal, but makes no effort to integrate his/her own activities with another's.
- Reciprocal Complementary Play - The child begins to show a differentiation of complementary roles. One child is the leader in an activity, and one is follower.
Social Play and Social Pretend Play:
READ MORE ABOUT THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SOCIAL PLAY AND SOCIAL PRETEND PLAY
_______
Parten (Mildred) Categories of Social Participation/Play: Parten was one of the first to study social play in young children. In 1932, she published her research in the Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology. Parten found that with increasing age, the children tended to participate in more social forms of play. Younger children tended to engage in more unoccupied behavior, onlooker behavior, and solitary play, while older preschoolers engaged in more cooperative play. (Resource: http://www.beststart.org/OnTrack_English/pdf/OnTrack-Section4.pdf)
Passive Play
- Unoccupied Behavior - The child is not actually “playing” but watches anything that happens to catch his interest. He may play with his own body, move around, remain in one location, or follow a teacher.
- Onlooker Behavior - Child observes others play but does not join in.
- Solitary Independent Play - Children prefer to play by themselves and are not interacting with other children. They may play apart with chosen toys, yet within speaking distance, and demonstrate little interest in making contact. Contact may consist of grabbing other children’s toys when the opportunity exists.
- Parallel Play - This stage is also known as adjacent play or social coaction. Children occupy space near others, but seldom share toys or materials. They may talk, but each has their own conversation and there is no attempt to communicate with each other. As an example, one child may talk about going to the circus while another interrupts about going to a fast food restaurant.
- Associative Play - When children enter this stage, they are moving away from playing alone to playing in a group. In associative play, children are engaged in separate activities but are interacting by exchanging toys and talking about the other child’s activity. An example of this might be children playing in the block area. Each child will have his own block structure, but he might comment on the other’s structure or perhaps offer a blue block or a car to use.
- Cooperative Play - This is the highest form of social play, where children are truly participating with each other. They are working towards a common goal. For example, children engaged in cooperative play might be seen acting out a story where each child has a part. They might jointly build a robot in the art center or weigh objects with the scales in the science center.
_______
Winter (W. M.): I have searched for more information on this person and keep coming up empty handed.
*Table above taken from Wittmer et al., 2013
_______
Play & Emotional Development: Children who are anxious may be helped by role playing. Role playing is a way of coping with emotional conflict. Children may escape through play into a fantasy world in order to make sense out of the real one. Also, a child's self-awareness deepens as he explores an event through role-playing or symbolic play. When a parent or sibling plays a board game with a child, shares a bike ride, plays baseball, or reads a story, the child learns self-importance. The child's self-esteem gets a boost. Parents send positive messages to their child when they communicate pleasure in providing him or her with daily care. From these early interactions, children develop a vision of the world and gain a sense of their place in it.
Play & Moral Development: When children engage in play with their peers and families, they begin to learn some behaviors are acceptable while others are unacceptable. Parents start these lessons early in the child's life by teaching the child to control aggressive behavior. Parents can develop morals while reading to children by stressing the moral implications in stories. Children can identify with the moral fictional characters without assuming their roles. With peers they quickly learn that taking turns is rewarding and cheating is not. Group play helps the child appreciate teamwork and share and respect others' feelings. The child learns how to be kind and charitable to others.
Play & Social Development: A newborn cannot distinguish itself from others and is completely self-absorbed. As the infant begins to play with others and with objects, a realization of self as separate from others begins to develop. The infant begins to experience joy from contact with others and engages in behavior that involves others. The infant discovers that when he coos or laughs, mother coos back. The child soon expects this response and repeats it for fun, playing with his mother. As children grow, they enjoy playful interaction with other children. Children learn about boundaries, taking turns, teamwork, and competition. Children also learn to negotiate with different personalities and the feelings associated with winning and losing. They learn to share, wait, and be patient.
(Resource: http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Play.aspx)
Winter (W. M.): I have searched for more information on this person and keep coming up empty handed.
- Independent Play - Plays alone or away from others.
- Proximal Play - Plays near others, engaged in own activity with not attempts to interact.
- Relational Play - Communicates with others verbally or nonverbally but follows an activity choice without involving others.
- Interactive Play - Is engaged with peers in a common activity. (Wittmer, Petersen, & Puckett, 2013)
*Table above taken from Wittmer et al., 2013
_______
Play & Emotional Development: Children who are anxious may be helped by role playing. Role playing is a way of coping with emotional conflict. Children may escape through play into a fantasy world in order to make sense out of the real one. Also, a child's self-awareness deepens as he explores an event through role-playing or symbolic play. When a parent or sibling plays a board game with a child, shares a bike ride, plays baseball, or reads a story, the child learns self-importance. The child's self-esteem gets a boost. Parents send positive messages to their child when they communicate pleasure in providing him or her with daily care. From these early interactions, children develop a vision of the world and gain a sense of their place in it.
Play & Moral Development: When children engage in play with their peers and families, they begin to learn some behaviors are acceptable while others are unacceptable. Parents start these lessons early in the child's life by teaching the child to control aggressive behavior. Parents can develop morals while reading to children by stressing the moral implications in stories. Children can identify with the moral fictional characters without assuming their roles. With peers they quickly learn that taking turns is rewarding and cheating is not. Group play helps the child appreciate teamwork and share and respect others' feelings. The child learns how to be kind and charitable to others.
Play & Social Development: A newborn cannot distinguish itself from others and is completely self-absorbed. As the infant begins to play with others and with objects, a realization of self as separate from others begins to develop. The infant begins to experience joy from contact with others and engages in behavior that involves others. The infant discovers that when he coos or laughs, mother coos back. The child soon expects this response and repeats it for fun, playing with his mother. As children grow, they enjoy playful interaction with other children. Children learn about boundaries, taking turns, teamwork, and competition. Children also learn to negotiate with different personalities and the feelings associated with winning and losing. They learn to share, wait, and be patient.
(Resource: http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Play.aspx)
Other related links to resources on Play and Social & Emotional Development:
Click on any of the options below to access more information...
Recommended Books for Play and Social & Emotional Development in the Teacher Resource Library:
Section - Educational Approaches:
Section - Educational Approaches:
- Bodrova & Leong - Tools of the Mind: The Vygotskian Approach to Early Childhood Education
- Elkind - The Power of Play: Learning What Comes Naturally
- Paley - A Child's Work: The Importance of Fantasy Play
- Saracho & Spodek - Multiple Perspectives on Play in Early Childhood Education
- Johnson, Christie, & Wardle - Play, Development, and Early Education
- Nell & Drew - From Play to Practice
- Rogers & Sawyers - Play in the Lives of Children
- Scales, Almy, Nicolopoulou, & Ervin-Tripp - Play and the Social Context of Development in Early Care and Education
- Paley - You Can't Say You Can't Play
Links to related resources on Social & Emotional Development in Infants:
- Social Emotional Development - Birth to 12 Months - Article
- Social Emotional Development - 12 to 24 Months - Article
- Social Emotional Development Domain - California Infant/Toddler Learning and Development Foundations -Website
- Tips and Tools for Promoting Social Emotional Development in Infants and Toddlers - Website/Articles
- Tips and Tools for Temperament and Behavior in Infants and Toddlers - Website/Articles
- Zero to Three - Website
Recommended Books for Social & Emotional Development in Infants from the Teacher Resource Library:
Section - Educational Approaches:
**Any of the textbooks located in this section have information on most if not all of the theorists/theories/concepts/ideas from above)
Section - Educational Approaches:
- Raikes & Edwards - Extending the Dance in Infant and Toddler Caregiving: Enhancing Attachment and Relationships
- Wittmer & Petersen - Infant and Toddler Development and Responsive Program Planning: A Relationship-Based Approach
- Bee - The Developing Child
- Berk - Development Through the Lifespan
- Bukatko & Daehler - Child Development: A Topical Approach
- Gordon - Human Development
- Ormond - Human Learning
- Wittmer, Petersen, & Puckett - The Young Child: Development from Prebirth Through Age Eight
- Wittmer - Focusing on Peers: The Importance of Relationships in the Early Years
**Any of the textbooks located in this section have information on most if not all of the theorists/theories/concepts/ideas from above)
Additional Terms/Concepts Related to Social & Emotional Development:
Delayed (Deferred) Gratification: Is the ability to resist the temptation for an immediate reward and wait for a later reward. Generally, delayed gratification is associated with resisting a smaller but more immediate reward in order to receive a larger or more enduring reward later. A person's ability to delay gratification relates to other similar skills such as patience, impulse control, self-control and willpower, all of which are involved in self-regulation (Resource: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delayed_gratification).
Empathy: Experiencing the feelings and emotions that someone else is experiencing (Wittmer et al., 2013). Important to mention that empathy and perspective taking are not the same thing. Affective perspective taking (empathy) and sympathy are part of social and emotional development whereas intellectual perspective taking is tied to cognitive development.
Impulse Control: The ability to resist the inclination to act immediately without consideration of other behavior choices or possible consequences. Involves inhibition of the impulse to do one thing and to stop and think about what is most appropriate or needed (Katz, 2014). Impulse control may be the single most important indicator of a person's future adaptation in terms of number of friends, school performance, and future employment.
(Resource: http://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/impulse+control)
Prosocial Learning/Behaviors: Prosocial behaviors are intended to benefit or help others without expectation of reward and are influenced by behaviors modeled by others. Prosocial behaviors include (but are not limited to): sharing, helping, cooperating, kindness, sympathy, generosity, helpfulness, comforting peers, defending, and distress at injustice or cruelty (Wittmer et al., 2013).
Other Regulation: Describes a situation in which a person is regulating another person or being regulated by someone else. The other element of other-regulation is the child’s ability to regulate other people’s behaviors - and learning to be both the regulator and the object of regulation are equally important for the development of self-regulation (Bodrova & Leong, 2007).
Self Regulation: Refers to the capacity to control one’s impulses, both to stop doing something, if needed (even if one wants to continue doing it) and to start doing something, if needed (even if one doesn’t want to do it). Self-regulation is not to be confused with obedience or compliance; when children are truly self-regulated they behave the same way whether or not an adult is watching. Self-regulated children can delay gratification and suppress their impulses long enough to think ahead to the possible consequences of their actions or to consider alternative actions that would be more appropriate (Resource: http://www.toolsofthemind.org/philosophy/self-regulation/).
Components of Self Regulation
- Sensory Threshold - Refers to the point of detection of sensory input in a given person at a given time.
- Reactivity - Refers to a person's level of response to sensory input.
- Sensory Processing requires the ability to organize sensations from the body and the environment and put them into adaptive use.
- Joint Attention - The manner in which two or more individuals simultaneously attend to a common goal or object.
Temperament: Describes individual differences in emotional reactivity and regulation that appear early in life, are relatively stable, and are at least partly biologically based. It describes how easily a child is bothered or aroused by sensory stimulation, how intense a child's reaction is, how active the child is, how a child responds to change, how a child approaches new situations, and so forth (Katz, 2014).
READ MORE ABOUT TEMPERAMENT TRAITS
Transitional Object: An object, usually a soft and cuddly item, to which a child becomes attached. It assists the child in making the transition from the dependency and protection of infancy to the independence and uncertainty of toddler period. Because these objects have been invested with certain meanings and comforting associations, the child forms and emotional tie to them. The child's attachment to the object can last to age 7 or 8 and sometimes beyond (Wittmer et al., 2013).
READ MORE ABOUT TRANSITIONAL OBJECTS
Empathy: Experiencing the feelings and emotions that someone else is experiencing (Wittmer et al., 2013). Important to mention that empathy and perspective taking are not the same thing. Affective perspective taking (empathy) and sympathy are part of social and emotional development whereas intellectual perspective taking is tied to cognitive development.
Impulse Control: The ability to resist the inclination to act immediately without consideration of other behavior choices or possible consequences. Involves inhibition of the impulse to do one thing and to stop and think about what is most appropriate or needed (Katz, 2014). Impulse control may be the single most important indicator of a person's future adaptation in terms of number of friends, school performance, and future employment.
(Resource: http://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/impulse+control)
Prosocial Learning/Behaviors: Prosocial behaviors are intended to benefit or help others without expectation of reward and are influenced by behaviors modeled by others. Prosocial behaviors include (but are not limited to): sharing, helping, cooperating, kindness, sympathy, generosity, helpfulness, comforting peers, defending, and distress at injustice or cruelty (Wittmer et al., 2013).
Other Regulation: Describes a situation in which a person is regulating another person or being regulated by someone else. The other element of other-regulation is the child’s ability to regulate other people’s behaviors - and learning to be both the regulator and the object of regulation are equally important for the development of self-regulation (Bodrova & Leong, 2007).
Self Regulation: Refers to the capacity to control one’s impulses, both to stop doing something, if needed (even if one wants to continue doing it) and to start doing something, if needed (even if one doesn’t want to do it). Self-regulation is not to be confused with obedience or compliance; when children are truly self-regulated they behave the same way whether or not an adult is watching. Self-regulated children can delay gratification and suppress their impulses long enough to think ahead to the possible consequences of their actions or to consider alternative actions that would be more appropriate (Resource: http://www.toolsofthemind.org/philosophy/self-regulation/).
Components of Self Regulation
- Sensory Regulation - Refers to the ability to take in, modulate, and organize sensations to engage in the task at hand.
- Sensory Threshold - Refers to the point of detection of sensory input in a given person at a given time.
- Reactivity - Refers to a person's level of response to sensory input.
- Sensory Processing requires the ability to organize sensations from the body and the environment and put them into adaptive use.
- Attention Regulation - Refers to the process of focusing selectively on the task at hand, resisting distractions, and sustaining focus for the length of time necessary to complete the task.
- Joint Attention - The manner in which two or more individuals simultaneously attend to a common goal or object.
- Emotional Regulation - Refers to one's ability to inhibit, enhance, maintain, and modulate emotional arousal to accomplish one's goals.
- Behavior Regulation - Refers to the ability to modulate one's behavior through delayed gratification, impulse control, etc.
Temperament: Describes individual differences in emotional reactivity and regulation that appear early in life, are relatively stable, and are at least partly biologically based. It describes how easily a child is bothered or aroused by sensory stimulation, how intense a child's reaction is, how active the child is, how a child responds to change, how a child approaches new situations, and so forth (Katz, 2014).
- Easy or flexible - children tend to be happy, regular in sleeping and eating habits, adaptable, calm, and not easily upset.
- Active or feisty - children may be fussy, irregular in feeding and sleeping habits, fearful of new people and situations, easily upset by noise and stimulation,and intense in their reactions.
- Slow to warm or cautious - children may be less active or tend to be fussy, and may withdraw or react negatively to new situations; but over time they may become more positive with repeated exposure to anew person, object, or situation.
READ MORE ABOUT TEMPERAMENT TRAITS
Transitional Object: An object, usually a soft and cuddly item, to which a child becomes attached. It assists the child in making the transition from the dependency and protection of infancy to the independence and uncertainty of toddler period. Because these objects have been invested with certain meanings and comforting associations, the child forms and emotional tie to them. The child's attachment to the object can last to age 7 or 8 and sometimes beyond (Wittmer et al., 2013).
READ MORE ABOUT TRANSITIONAL OBJECTS
Other related links to resources about the terms/concepts/ideas above:
Click on any of the options below to access more information...
- Delaying Gratification - Article
- Developing Self Regulation: The Vygotskian View - Article
- Dr. Bruce Perry, Childhood Development on LIVING SMART with Patricia Gras - Video
- Impulse Control - Chart
- Social Emotional Development - 24 to 36 Months - Article
- Social Emotional Development Domain - California Infant/Toddler Learning and Development Foundations -Website
- The Power of Delaying Gratification - Article
- The Transitional Object - Article
- Transitional Objects and Transitional Phenomena - Article
- Zero to Three - Website
Reference List for Works Cited on This Page:
- Bodrova, E., & Leong, D. J. (2007). Tools of the mind: The Vygotskian approach to early childhood education (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
- Katz, J. E. (2014). Guiding children's social and emotional development: A reflective approach. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
- Wittmer, D. S., Petersen, S. H., & Puckett, M. B. (2013). The young child: Development from prebirth through age eight (6th ed.). Upper Saddle Rive, NJ: Pearson.